THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
pre-Reformation ecclesiastical system, as developed from the time of Gregory VII., the pope, as vicar of Christ, is pastor of the worlii ; he ap- The Pre- points bishops as his representatives, Refonna- one for each geographical district (dition Idea, ocese); every bishop appoints priests as his representatives, one for every subdistrict (parish; see Church Government, § 1; Cure of Souls). The Christian population of such a parochial district, ecclesiastically united because placed iinder the care of a pastor and regularly dependent on him alone for its spiritual needs, forms the parochial congregation. The latter is naturally interested in having the funds of the local church, from which the expenses of the pastor and his helpers as well as of the religious services are defrayed, administered faithfully and properly. This interest was recognized in pre-Reformation canon law by allowing the so-called " churchfathers " and " patrons " (patrini), who were chosen from the members of the parish, to share in the administration; but they can scarcely be called representatives of the congregation, as they were generally chosen by the clergy. Only in consequence of privileges and old customs did a few churches here and there have any degree of independence, e.g., the right to choose their own pastor. As a rule, the congregation was merely a " flock united to the shepherd," and its position is expressed in tlie Corpus juris canonici, when it says: " We have decreed that laymen should not presume to transact ecclesiastical affairs " (2, X., de judiciis [ii. 1]); " we forbid any layman to be allowed to dispute concerning the Catholic faith " (2, § 1, de hmreticis, and VI. [v. 2]); " laymen must obey, not exercise authority " (12, X., de rebus ecclesiasticis non aliendis [iii. 13]).
The Churches of the Reformation, both Lutheran and Reformed, placed the congregations on a different basis. Rejecting the mediatory position of the priesthood and its consequences, and emphasizing the responsibility of the individual, they make it the religious duty of the layman to see that word and sacraments are rightly administered; accordingly, they teach that the congrega- The Lu- tions have a divine commission to theran turn away from false doctrine and to Churches, provide for a right ministry in case the ecclesiastical authorities do not do so. The Lutheran Church asserts the right of members of the congregation to representation and a voice in synods and church courts, so far as they are qualified to serve in such capacities, and of admonishing or lodging complaint against preachers offensive in doctrine or conduct. It allows the congregation at least tlie right of veto in the choice of pastor and a share in the administration of the local funds. The congregation must be consulted by the authorities before constitutional changes can be made, and the right to a share in church discipline, so far as allowed by Scripture, is granted. The Reformers themselves and the Rostock theologians, Johan QuistorpandTheophilusGrossgebauer in the seventeenth century, recognized the need of church committees and boards of elders to make these congregational rigiits effective. But in the evolution of the German national Church boards
of elders had no proper place and therefore, like the congregational rights themselves, did not flourish. Tlie modern development, however, has everywhere asserted the principle of self-government in individual Lutheran congregations, though in varying degree in different churches (see Church Government, §§ 3-8).
The Reformed Churches gave the congregations a more important development. That of Zwingh, to be sure, followed essentially the same principles as the Lutherans, and certain modifications resulted only from the fact that it grew on The Re- republican soil and the Swiss churches formed already enjoyed privileges in the choice Churches, of a pastor. Calvin, however, taught separation of Church and State and independent church government as divinely instituted. According to his view there must be a board (consistoire, session) at the head of each church, consisting of two kinds of elders, ruling and teaching. The care of the poor is entrusted to deacons. These ideas came to full realization in France, and extended thence to the Spanish Netherlands, and to Germany when Reformed congregations settled there to escape persecution. [See Church Government, §§ 2-3; Baptists, I., 3, § 1; and Congregationalists, IV. These and other denominations, including many of the minor ones, have embodied in their church polity the principle of democracy more fuUy than the parties mentioned in the text.] E. Sehling.
Bibliography: For the Biblical conception consult: G. F. Moore, Commentary on Jvdges, on Judges xx. 1, New York, 1895; W. M. Ramsay, in Expositor, 5th ser., iii. 137 sqq.; Schurer, Geschichte, ii. 427 sqq.. Eng. transl., II., ii. 59 sqq. For the early Christian congregation consult: F. J. A. Hort, Christian Bcclesia, London, 1897. For Lutheran and Reformed Churches: A. L. Richter, Geschichte der evangelischen Kirch^nverfassung, Leipsic, 1851; O. Mejer, Grundlagen des lutherischen Kirchenregiments, Rostock, 1864; idem, Kirchenrecht, pp. 156 sqq., Gottingen, 1869; R. Solmi, Kirchenrecht, i. 460 sqq., Leipsic, 1892.
CONGREGATIONAL METHODISTS: See Methodists, IV., 9.