2. The introduction of sin into the world modified to a certain extent the mutual relations of man and wife. As the blame of seduction to sin lay on the latter, the condition of subordination was turned into subjection, and it was said to her of her husband, " he shall rule over thee" (Gen. iii, 16) — a sentence which, regarded as a prediction, has been strikingly fulfilled in tlie position assigned to women in Oriental countries ; but which, re- garded as a rule of life, is fully sustained by the voice of nature and bv the teaching of Christianity (1 Cor. xiv, 34 ; Eph. v,"22, 23 ; 1 Tim. ii, 12). The evil effects of the fall were soon apparent in the corrupt usages of marriage : the unity of the bond was impaired by po- lygamy, which ap]3ears to have originated among the Cainites (Gen. iv, 19) ; and its purity was deteriorated by the promiscuous intermarriage of the " sons of God" with the " daughters of men," i. e. of the Sethites with the Cainites, in the days preceding the flood (Gen. vi, 2).
8. For the history of marriage in the later ages, see below. One question may properly be considered here, i. e. celibacy. Shortly before the Christian »ra an im- portant change took place in the views entertained on the question of marriage as affecting the spiritual and intellectual parts of man's nature. Throughout the Old- Testament period marriage was regarded as the indis- pensable duty of every man, nor was it surmised that there existed in it any drawback to the attainment of the highest degree of holiness. In the interval that elapsed between the Old and New Testament periods, a spirit of asceticism had been evolved, probably in an- tagonism to the foreign notions with which the Jews were brought into close and painful contact. 'The Es- senes were the first to propound any doubts as to the propriety of marriage ; some of them avoided it alto- gether, others availed themselves of it under restric- tions (Josephus, War, ii, 8, § 2, 13). Similar views were adopted by the Therapeutae, and at a later period by the Gnostics (Burton's Lectures, i, 214) ; thence they passed into the Christian Church, forming one of the distinc- tive tenets of the Encratites (Burton, ii, 101), and finally developing into the system of IMonachism. Tlie philo- sophical tenets on which the prohibition of marriage was based are generally condemned in Col. ii, 16-23, and specifically in 1 Tim. iv, 3. The general propriety of marriage is enforced on numerous occasions, and absti- nence from it is commended only in cases where it was rendered expedient by the calls of duty (Matt, xix, 12 ; 1 Cor. vii, 8, 26). With regard to remarriage after the death of one of the parties, the Jews, in common with other nations, regarded abstinence from it, particularly in the case of a widow, laudable, and a sign of holiness (Luke ii, 36, 7 ; Josephus, Ant. xvii, 13, 4 ; xviii, 6, 6) ; but it is clear, from the example of Josephus {Vit. 76), that there was no prohibition even in the case of a priest. In the Apostolic Church remarriage was re- garded as occasionally undesu-able (1 Cor. vri, 40), and as an absolute disqualififcation for holy functions, wheth-
er in a man or woman (1 Tim. iii, 2, 12 ; v, 9) ; at the same time it is recommended in the case of young wid- ows (1 Tim. V, 14).
II. Mode of selecting a Bride, Betrothed, and Marriage- price. — 1. Imitating the example of the Father of the Universe, who provided the man he made with a wife, fathers from the beginning considered it both their duty and prerogative to find or select wives for their sous (Gen. xxiv, 3; xxxviii, 6). In the absence of the fa- ther, the selection devolved upon the mother (Gen. xxi, 21). Even in cases where the wishes of the son were consulted, the proposals were made by the father (Gen. xxxiv, 4, 8) ; and the violation of this parental prerog- ative on the part of the son was " a grief of mind" to the father (Gen. xxvi, 35). The proposals were generally made by the parents of the young man, except when there was a difference of rank ; in such a case the nego- tiations proceeded from the father of the maiden (Exod. ii, 21), and when accepted by the parents on both sides, sometimes also consulting the opinion of the adidt broth- ers of the maiden (Gen. xxiv, 51 ; xxxiv, 11), the mat- ter was considered as settled without requiring the con- sent of the bride. The case of Rebekah (Gen. xxiv, 58) forms no exception to this general practice, inasmuch as the alliance had already been concluded between Elea- zar and Laban, and the question put to her aftenvards was to consiUt her opinion, not about it, but about the time of her departure. Before, however, the marriage- contract was finally concluded, a price (inJO) was stip- ulated for, which the young man had to pay to the fa- ther of the maiden (Gen. xxxi, 15 ; xxxiv, 12), besides giving presents ("jria) to her relations (Gen. xxiv, 53; xxxiv, 12). This marriage -price was regarded as a compensation due to the parents for the loss of service which they sustained by the departure of their daugh- ter, as well as for the trouble and expense which they incurred in her education. Hence, if the proffered young man had not the requisite compensation, he was obliged to make it up in ser\-ice (Gen. xxix, 20; Exod. ii, 21 ; iii, 1). Some, indeed, deny that a price had to be paid down to the father for parting with his daughter, and appeal for support to Gen. xxxi, 15, where, according to them, " the daughters of Laban make it a matter of complaint, that their father bargained for the services of Jacob in exchange for their hands, just as if they were sti-aiigers ;" thus showing that the sale of daugh- ters was regarded as an unjust act and a matter of Com- plaint (Saalschiltz, Das Masaische Recht. p. 733). But, on a closer inspection of the passage in question, it will be seen that Rachel and Leah do not at all complain of any indignity heaped on them by being sold just as if they wore strangers, but, on the contrarj-, mention the sale to corroborate their statement that they are no longer their father's property, have no more any portion in his possession, and are note regarded by him as stran- gers, since, according to the usual custom, they have been duly sold to their husband, and hence agree with the latter that it is time for them to depart. Besides, the marriage-price is distinctly mentioned in other pas- sages of Scripture (Exod. xxii, 15, 16 ; 1 Sam. xviii, 23, 25; Ruth iv, 10; Hos. iii, 2), and was commonly de- manded by the nations of antiquity ; as the Babylonians (Herod, i, 196) ; Assyrians (/Elian, T'. //. iv, 1 ; Strabo, xvi,745); the ancient Greeks (Cf/^5«.viii, 318 sq.: Arist. Polit. ii, 8 ; Pausan. iii, 12, 2) ; the Germans (Tacitus, Germ, xviii), and still obtams in the East to the present day. In fact, it could not be otherwise where polygamy was practiced. As the number of maidens Avas under such circumstances less than that of wooers, it called forth competition, and it was but natural that he who ofi'ered the highest marriage-price obtained the damsel. There was therefore no fixed marriage-price ; it varied according to circumstances. We meet with no dowry given with the bride by her father during the patri- archal age, except a maid-servant (Gen. xxiv, 61 ; xxix, 24, 29).