Sossibly means a tmsty lance, and not a straight or sound or ard lance (Wellhausen, GGiV, 1893, p. 434), though Nbldeke considers that in this case the meaning * straight 'is certain (Fiinfildallnqiit, 2, p. 40).
It has commonly been held that the varied senses of righteous- ness can be reduced to the single idea of ' conformity to a norm,' resting ultimately on the physical analogy of strai{jhtness. But the notion of ' conformity to a norm ' could hardly be primitive ; and, even if all the uses of p1^ could be brought under it, it woiild not thereb.v be proved to be fundamental, since all legd and ethical terms necessarily imply a reference to a norm. It is indeed very doubtful if straightness be the concept originally expressed by the root. Certainly, nothing of the kind can be inferred from the cases in the OT where the word is used of materi.al objects. Jiist balances, weights, etc. (Lv 19'5. 36, Dt 25*5, Job 31^, Ezk 4510), are simply such balances, etc., as justice demands (cf. Am S^), just as sacrifices of rightemisness {\)t 33*3, Ps 45 5119) are sacrifices rightly offered. The phrases pat/ts nf righteousness (Ps 233) and gates o/ righteousness (IIS'S) are so obviously figurative that they do not fall to be considered here at all. The evidence from Arabic is equally inconclusive. Here the discussion has turned largely on the use of sad^ as an epithet of the lance (see above)- It happens, however, to be applied in particular to the knots of the lance reed (of. sadk 'ul-kxiub, Muall. Antara, 48), where, if the word describes anj- physical quaUty at all, it must be hardness ; unless, indeed, kab be understood as a section of the reed between two knots (Nbldeke, i6.). On the whole, perhaps, the idea of hardness best accounts for the ^higher developments of the idea both in Arabic and Hebrew. The transition from hardness to trustworthiness is easy and natural, while the same analogy in the legal sphere might denote unimpeachableness of conduct on the part of a suitor, or steadfastness of character on the part of the judge. But these speculations are of little account ; the meanings of right- eousness in OT have to be ascertained from usage, and the fundamental usages appear to be those stated in the preceding paragraphs.
ii. RiGHTEOtJSNESS IN THE PROPHETS.— AltllOUgh the prophets were the great champions and ex- ponents of righteousness in Israel, it is not easy to say precisely in what respect their teaching marks an advance on the current notions examined in the last section. In their use of terms they adhere closely to the common forms of speech : the ?•"»• is still the man whose cause is just, and n^']^ and Pji- continue to be used of forensic right or judicial rectitude. Nevertheless it is clear that the whole idea is elevated to a higher plane in the teaching of the prophets, and actjuires a signilicance at once more ethical and more universal. The difference of standpoint is partly to he explained by the state of things which the prophets saw aroiind them. By the 8th cent, the old constietudinary morality had broken down under the pressure of far-reaching economic changes which had ati'ected disastrously the life of the people. Large numbers of Israelites bad been disposse.ssed of their holdings, and in con- sequence deprived of their civil and religious rights; the poor were defrauded and ground down by the rich, and even the forms of law had been turned into a powerful engine of oppression. In face of a situation like this, it is evident that the prophetic ideal of righteousness must rest on deeper founda- tions than mere use and wont. It rests, in fact, on the ethical character of J". What is distinctive of the prophets is the conviction that social righteous- ness is the necessary and inexorable demand of J"'8 moral nature. So intense is this conviction that the idea of abstract right seems to stand out before their minds as an objective reality, a power that may be resisted but can never be defeated. 'Never before,' says Wellhausen, 'had this boen proclaimed with such tremendous emphasis. Mor- ality is that through which alone all things subsist, the sole reality in the world. It is no postulate, no idea, it is at once necessity andfact,— the most living,
personal energy, — Jahwe, the God of Forces.'* This is most clearly to be seen in Amos, the lather of written prophecy; but all the propliets move on the lines laid down by him, and mean by righteousness substantially what he means, althongli they may not give it the same central position which it occu- pies in his book. It may suliice to note the following points. (1) The prophets are concerned in the tirst instance with that exercise of righteousness o« which the well-being of the community- most de- pends, the public ndministration of justice. Amoa demands that right (sff'?) be set up in the gate (5"); that right roll down like waters, and righteous- ness like a perennial stream (5-*) ; and complains bitterly of those who turn righteousness to worm- wood, i.e. turn the fount of justice into a source of wrong and misery (5' 6'"). Isaiah and Micah hurl their invectives against the ruling classes for their perversion of justice and legalized plunder of the poor (Is 1" 3'«- 5'^ 10"-, Mic -I^-^- S'-'-"'-), and Jeremiah denounces the rapacity and misgovem- ment of the kings (22'3- •» 23"- ; cf. Ezk Zi^«-). Cf. further, Hos 10>-, Is 1=' 5', Jer 2-?' etc. A well- governed State, repressing all wTong and violence, and securing to the meanest his rights as a mem- ber of J"'s kingdom, is the embodiment of the prophetic ideal of righteousness. At the same time, the spirit which ought to preside at the seat of judgment is conceived as a principle pervading the whole life of the nation, and regulating the relations of its different members and classes. Civic righteousness is perhaps more a function of the community, a sound and normal condition of the body politic, than a rule of individual conduct ; although the latter is, of course, in- cluded (Hos 10'-, Jer 4'-). (2) In their conception of wliat constitutes righteousness, the prophets are not dependent on a ^^Titteu code,t and stiD less on the technicalities of legal procedure. Their appeal is to the moral sense, the instinctive per- ception of what is due to others, the recognition of the inherent rights of human personality. The idea is far broader than what we usually mean by right or justice ; it includes a large-hearted con- struction of the claims of humanity ; it is, as has been said, the humanitarian virtue par excellence.^ And this is true not only in private relations, but also in the sphere of juilicial action. The righteous- ness of the judge appears pre-eminently in his vin- dication of the widow, the orphan, and the stranger, the oppressed and defenceless classes generally (Is 1" etc.). In Amos the p'ls is always the poor man, with no influence at his back, who must therefore look to the judge to maintain his rights. This feature might be considered accidental, arising from the injustice to which the poor were sub- jected at that time. But it is important, never- theless, as exhibiting an aspect of the Heb. idea of judicial righteousness which is apt to be overlooked by us. It denotes not merelv the neutral impartial attitude of mind which decides fairly between rival interests, but a positive energy on the side of right, a readiness to protect and succour tliose who have no belli in themselves. (3) Righteousness in this ethical sense is not only rooted in the moral instincts of human nature, but is a reflexion of the character of J". It is what He requires of men, what He has looked for in vain from Israel (Is 5'), that in which He delights, which He seeks to pro- duce on earth (Jer 9^). The inflexibility of this Divine demand for social righteousness is one or the most impressive things in prophecy. Ritual serWce is as nothing in J"'3 sight ; He despises and hates