(6) Illustrations of this developing consciousne.ss are seen in two matters arising from constant use of the lxx)ks. (i.) The descriptive titles. Barnabas, Ejh iv., is the first to use the formula 'as it is WTitten ' in quoting words taken from the N.T. [ = Mt 221-']. In Justin M., Ap. i. 66, the term ' Gospels ' is first applieil to Ixxtks. Melito of Sardis (<•. A.D. 170). ap. Eus. HE iv. 26, refers to ' the books of the Old Testament," implying un- doubtedly by contrast ' the 1xK)ks of the New.' The latter description is expressly used by Iren;¥us, Ha^r. ii. 58. and the two Testaments are from that time on a level. Chrysostom is said to have l>een the first to adopt the expression ' Bible' (rd j3i3\ia) ; for the two Testaments as one whole, (ii.) Public j reading. For some consideralile time (varying much in ditterent jdaces) profitableness seems to have been tiie only al>sulnte test required. Dionys. of Corinth ('■. A.D. 170-175). ap. Eus. HE iv. 23, refers to the public re-iding of a letter from Soter, as well as to the lietter known instance of the Ep. of Clem, of Rome. Eusebius {ib. iii. 3) relates that Hernias had formerly lieen read in public on account of its usefulness for ' elementary instruc- tion.' Apaitolic nnturr, (i.e. practically inspira-
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NICODEMUS
tion ') Avas subsequently the regular test : cf. Eus. I.e. and Cyril of Jerus. (c. A.D. 340), Catech. iv. 33-36. Hence STj/jLoaieveadai under the former con- ditions refers merely to the fact of public reading ; under the latter it is a declaration of canonical authority.
(3) The third stage is that oi formal definition. — Diocletian's persecution (A.D. 303-311), directed against the Christian Scriptures, j^roves that their unique position and influence was a matter known to the heathen throughout the Roman Emjjire. It also made the identihcation of those Scriptures, as distinct from other Christian books, a vital matter (cf. the history of the Donatist schism on the ques- tion of ' traditores '). Eusebius, writing A.D. 313- 325, sums up the general consent of that time (HE iii. 3, 24, 25), in three classes of books — ' acknow- ledged,' i e. of undisputed authenticity and Apos- tolic power ; ' disputed,' i.e. defective in either of those qualities ; and ' heretical.' The Emperor Constantine(A.D. 331) caused to be prepared, imder the direction of Eusebius, fifty copies of the Divine Scriptures for use in the churches of Constantinoi)le (cf. Eus. Vit. Const, iv. 36). These must have become a standard in the Greek Church. It may be added that the evidence of ancient versions, old Latin, Syriac, and Egyptian, is of great importance ; but it is of too complicated a nature to be brieHy dis- cussed. Succeeding Councils dealt with the Canon, esi3. that of Laodicea (r. A.D. 363) and the third of Carthage (A.D. 397). The catalogue of canonical books which bears the name of the former is held to be spurious : to the catalogue of Carthage Christendom adheres to-day.
Literature. — The NT (as a whole or its separate portions) forms the subject of well-known 'Introductions,' Commentaries, etc. For special information see Sandaj-, Inspiration ; Wright, Synopsis (oral theory); Westcott, Canon of ^T and Bible in the Church ; Moflfatt, The Historical NT. A work on the ' Canon and Text of the NT' (Gregory) is to form part of the Inter- national Theol. Library series. Y. S. RaNKEN.
NICODEMUS.— One of the persons mentioned only in the Fourth Gospel. He is described as a Pharisee and a ruler of the Jews. He had an interview with Jesus by night (Jn 31*^) ; and though he did not become an avowed disciple, he prote.sted in the Sanhedrin against the hasty condemnation of Jesus (7^"^-) ; and after the Crucifixion he brought spices to embalm the body of the Lord (19^^).
The name Nicodemiis is Greek (from tiHy, and S-^'aos — ' conqueror of the people'). Josephus (.4n<. xiv. iii. -2) gives Nicodemus as the name of an ambassador from Aristobulus to Pompey. In the Talmud we have the form [iD'^lpJ as the name given to a certain Bunai ben Gorion, because, it is said, of a miraculous answer to his prayer. This ben Gorion was a ricli man, and is reported to have spent a vast sum on the marriage of his daughter, who afterwards sank into abject poverty. He appears to liave had charge of tlie supply of water to the pilgrims at Jerusalem ; and he was accused of being a Christian. Some have identified this man with the Nicodemus of the Gospel ; but the positive grounds of identification are insutiScient ; and there is the nega- tive consideration that ben Gorion is spoken of as living till tlie siege of Jerusalem, whereas Nicodenms, already in Jn 3 an elderl\- man (yipav, v.i), could hardly have survived to so late a period. Some writers, who regard the Fourth Gospel as un- historical, suggest that our Nicodemus is simplv a typical char- acter, constructed by the Evangelist from the traditions of ben Gorion, with the aid of the Synoptic references to Joseph of Ariniathiea. Thus E. A. Abbott (Ency. Bib. art. ' Nicodemus ') says : ' Nicodemon ben Gorion passes into the Gospel under the shadow of Joseph of Arimathaja'; and speaks of 'a conflate development of Joseph into two persons.' He says that N. ben Gorion was one of three or four who were sonietimes called /3ow.£!>Ta,', 'rich men,' 'great men of the city,' and suggests that as an official provider of water he was an appropriate character for a dialogue on regeneration. He concludes that Nicodenms IS 'a Johannine conception representing the liberal, moderate, and well-meaning Pharisee, whose fate it was to be crushed out of existence in the conflict between Judaism and its Roman and Christian adversaries.' This reconstruction can hardly be per- suasive except to those who on other grounds have already judged the Fourth Gospel to be without historic value. The general discussion goes beyond the limit of this article. It is enough to say here that there is nothing in what is related of Nicodemus, or in the circumstances of his connexion with Jesus, whi(-h is in itself improbable, or out of harmony with what we