A legitimate inference from all this is that our Lord — with His healthy outlook on life — would encourage all the honest occupations which mini- stered to man's varied needs. The Apostles' teach- ing surely reflected the mind of their Master on this subject. If eating and drinking could con- tribute to the glory of God (1 Co W^), then all the occupations which provided food and drink could be pursued in the same spirit. St. Paul enjoins on bishops and other teachers of the gospel to in- culcate upon Christians that they should maintain good works for necessary uses (Tit S'''). That means for the support of themselves and families, and relief of the needy. This is a duty as imperative in its own place as the duty of the ministry, and the Apostle lays great stress on it. ' This is a faithful saying, and these things I will that thou affirm constantly, that they Avhich have believed in God might be careful to maintain good works. These things are good and profitable unto men ' (Tit 3^), i.e. of general benefit and advantage to mankind. Thus a man's occupation, instead .of being a hin- drance to religion, is a part of it, — that sjihere in which he can prove himself a doer of the word, — and faithfulness is required there as much as any- where else (Lk 16^"). See also artt. Business, Carpenter, Trades.
Literature. — Besides Lexicons, see articles on ' Craft,' 'Trade,' and 'Trades' in Hastings' DB; Tillotson, Sermon 101 vol. vi. ; Delitzsch, Jewish Artisan Life.
D. A. MACKINNON.
OFFENCE.— This article deals Avith the ideas connected with the words a-KdvdaXov and (TKavSaXi^eLv, and, in so far as they are applied in the same moral sphere, Avith those suggested by irpoaKbirrnv, TrpdcrKOfx/xa, and airpbcTKovoi. The literal meaning of (TKdv8a\ov, which is probably the Alexandrian form of (TKa.v5a\rfdpov, may be the part of a trap to which
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the bait is fastened, and which, when it is touched, springs up and catclies the victim ; but in Scrip- ture tlie sense is not so definite. It may be ques- tioned, indeed, whether it is ever used literally ; and the figurative or ethical use of it, which is peculiar to Scripture, is what Ave are now to investigate. The one idea which is constant in every use of the word, literal or figurative, is that of hurt sustained ; it may even be of ruin incurred, bj' the person who encounters the aKavSaXoi'. It will be convenient to exhibit the Scriptural view of the subject by referring ( I ) to the experience of Jesus ; (2) to the teaciiing of Jesus ; and (3) to the application of this in the Apostolic Church.
1. Experience of Jesus. — When Jesus visited Nazareth, and taught in the synagogue so that all were astonished, astonisliment soon passed into a kind of carping criticism. ' Whence liath tliis man these things, and what is the wisdom that has been given to him ? And these mighty works that are being done by him ? Is not this the carpenter ? ' And so on (Mk 6'-^- ||). The people had been used to Jesus in one aspect or character, and they could not adjust themselves to Him in another. There was something in His present appearance and claims which they could not get over : as the Evangelists put it, iaKavbaKigovro iv avrip. Jesus Himself was the ffKdvdaXov with which, for the time at least, they collided : it was to their hurt even at the moment (He could do no mighty work there because of tiieir unbelief, 6^), and it would be their ruin if it were their final attitude. Probably before Jesus can become a (TKdvSaXov, men must have felt tiie attraction in Him : it is only when closer acquaintance reveals something in Him, or in the consequences of attachment to Him, which is repellent to the natural man, that He becomes a <TKdv5a\ov, and tliose who were once attracted fall awaj'. They stumble at something which attach- ment to Him involves ; they cannot get over it, and so they desert Him. This is the connexion in which ffKav5a\i^€cydaL occurs in Mk 14^- ^ and ||. Jesus on the last night of His life recalls to the Twelve the prophecy of Zechariah (13'^): 'I will smite the shephei'd, and the sheep of the flock shall be scattered,' and applies it by adding, 'All ye (TKavSaXicrdrjaeade iv i/noi iv rrj vvktI raurr].^ They had felt tlie charm of Jesus, and continued with Him in His temptations so far ; but a Messiah who should be seized, tortured, and crucified by sinners would be too much for them. In spite of all they had seen and felt in Him, they would stumble at this, and leave Him in the lurch. It is the same idea, mutatis mutandis, which is found in Mk 4" and II Mt. ; the rocky ground hearers, who have shown a warm appieciation of the word, are taken aback when they find that they have to endure persecution because of it, and ' immediately they are offended.' Lk 8" gives the correct interpreta- tion : ' in time of temptation they fall away.' The parable of the Sower, standing where it does, is not so much a prophecy, though it is proplietic, as a summary of the disenchanting experiences of Jesus. He had seen many enthusiasms chill, the moment fidelity to Him exacted any sacrifice. In one sense this is ' the offence of the cross,' though it is not what St. Paul means by this expression. We are in tlie same circle of ideas in Mt 24^'-, Jn 16"-. Jesus warns His disciples of coming persecutions ; they as well as He have the cross to bear ; and while many will stumble at it,— that is, find it too much for tliem, a thing which they cannot get over, and must simply decline, —'He tells the Twelve beforehand, that being forewarned they may be forearmed against the peril of apostasy.