LiTEP.ATrRE. — The most important work of recent date on the Parables and their exposition is A. JQlicher's Die GUichi>>*rr'':/en Jesu, Freiburg. 1S99. See also C. A. Bnffge, Die /fa 11 pi- Pa rn- hein Jej'U. Giessen, 1903 : Heinrich Weinel. Die Bilderxprac/ie Jesiii in iJirer Bedeuiungfiirflie Erforschung Keine* inneren Lehen^^. Giessen. liHHj ; • Die Gleichnisse Jesu. zuirleich eine .\n- lei:an°r zu einem quelleomassig-en Verstandnis der Evangelien.' Leipzig, l^vt [i volume of the series Aui* Xatur unti Oei^tes- >ce!f]; Paul Viehis. AH-juffi*c>ie G/rit-fini^e und die Gleich- TiiJt*.e Jeitu, Tubinffen u. Leipzig. 1904 ; S. Goebel. Die Paraheln Jexn methodixch auMjelegt. Gotha,l>T9-S0 [Eng. tr. (Edin. lj.sJ> The ParahJe* of./r'ii-x] : A. B. Bruce. T7>e Parabolic Teaching of Chriii. London. ISSJ : F. L. Steinmeye"-, Ifie Parabeln den Iferrn, Berlin. 1S>4; R. Winterbotham. The Kingdom of Hearen (1S9>» ; A. L. Lillev. AdrentiiJi Regni (1907) ; artt. in Hastinffs' DB. the EBi. and the PRE'^. vol. vi. pp. <>>>-Tii3 (Heinriei) : CommeniarieJ> on the Gospel*, and Lire* of Chrivt. For further literature, see Julicher, op. eil. i. pp. iLCj-^Ji.
W. J. MOULTOX.
PARACLETE (xopdicXjjTos) . — The terra is used only in RVm; and is applied to Christ in 1 Jn 2^, and to the Holy Spirit in Jn lii<>-^ 1.3^6 16". For an examination of the Greek word and its cognates, see • Paraclete' in Hastings' DB iii. Q^o ff.. also art. Advocate in present work. A passive meaning, ' called to one's help.' is required by both the form and the cla.s.sical usage, in which genei-ally the word is technical, and denotes the adviser of a defendaBtyor his representative and counsel in a court of law. Gradually the two ideas of previous engagement by a client and of action only in the court or presence of a jiulge fall away, and the word comes to denote one who, in something of a representative character, carries on the cause and promotes the interest of another.
In Philo the process of the widening of the meaning of the word, used by him sometimes in a technical and sometimes in a more general sense, may almost be traced (cf. Hatch. Es^at/s in BihI. Greet. l>->9. S-2 f>. without the assumption of any Johannine dependence upon Philo. In the Talm. and Targ. the word is transliterated S'*??"^? or X^*^? -?■ ^^ ^^^ Targ. at Job 3;js5i"'»-: is rendered ' paraclete." the idea being apparently that a special agency from G0.I is needed 'to show unto man what is riffht." and so produce repentance. Pirlce Ahoth. iv. 15. re- presents obedience to a sinele precept of the Law as a man's jiaraclete, averting punishment from him. In Shabb. 'iia. the technic.1l use of the word occurs, and the passage proceeils to assert that repentance and ffo<»<I works act in a similar wav as paracletes for a man. ensurin? his salvation. Similarly Bnha bat/ira, Uhi, m.ikes all acts of charity and benevolence paracletes between Israel and the Father in heaven. The two d^v offer-
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PARADISE
ings and the sin-offering (Zebakirn, 76) are paracletes, interced- ing for man and securing the favour of the King. In Talmudic times, consequent!}', the process of change had been carried so far that the word was capable of an impersonal use, and even the plants of Succoth might be spoken of as paracletes, praying in man's behalf for rain {TcCanith, i. 63c). An earlier stage is occupied by the Johannine writings, where the word is still personal, though the strictly passive sense had already gone, and the judicial suggestiveness was disappearing.
A Babylonian origin has been claimed for the doctrine of the Paraclete on such grounds as that Nusku is persuaded by Ea and Marduk to join in the intervention against the revolted evil genii. But Nusku was only a messenger of Bel (Jensen, ZA xi. 29; Jastrow, Rel. of Bab. 220 f.); and though he continued for some time to be known to the northern Semites (cf. the Nerab inscr. in Cooke, North- Semitic Inser. 186 ff.), his assumed functions differed generally from those of a paraclete, and entirely from those referred to in the Fourth Gospel. The term is certainly not Babylonian in its origin ; and preparations for its NT use may be found not only in Philo and the Targums, but even in Ps 34? and Job 3323, though neither Jesus nor the author of the Johannine literature needed such preparations. Both had sufficient literary faculty to be able to pass without guidance from the literal to a metonymous sense of a word, and to place it appropriately amid new connexions.
The term is applied both to Christ Himself and to the Holy Spirit in meanings that may be classified. Christ is referred to as a Paraclete in two passages. 1. During His historic manifestation (cf. ' another ' in Jn 14'*) He acted in two ways concurrently upon men, promoting the interests of God. Immanently He was in them ' the light which lighteth every man ' (Jn 1*) ; and objectively He brought to bear upon them from without the influence of His ex- ample and teaching. It is in the latter sphere that His provisional work as Paraclete, agent for God amongst men, is to be found. Evidently He regarded it as less permanently valuable for man than the indwelling life, which the coming of the Spirit would enrich, securing thus the control and the development of the regenerate heart from within ; and hence He could say, ' It is expedient for you that I go away ' ( Jn 16^). 2 Since Pente- cost, Christ acts as Paraclete for man with God (1 Jn 2'). In His immanence He represents all, as His propitiation avails for all ; but specifically His immanental union with believers is made more effective by their attitude of consent and devotion, and He carries on their cause with the Father, covering their sins and acting personally in their behalf (cf. He V^ Ro S^^, Lk 22^^ 23^^ Jn 17"^*).