2. Subsequent to the Ascension. — If Peter was the foremost of the disciples before the Ascension, he was still more so, if possible, after that event. He is represented throughout the Acts as the leader of the Church ; and this view is confirmed by the references that St. Paul (Gal I'- *) makes to his position, which prove that his was the commanding personality in the Church. The suggestion that a successor to Judas should be appointed was made by him, and at once adopted by the body of believers (Ac l^^"'-). The explanation of the descent of the tongues of flame at Pentecost is given by him (2^*"^-). He performs the first Christian miracle (3®''). Tlie defence of the new community when its leaders are arrested by the Sanhedrin falls on him (4''^-). The doom of Ananias and Sapphira is pronounced by his lips (S"*' ^). When the gospel is preached in Samaria, John and he are appointed commissioners to investigate the new situation (8''*). He is the first to throw open the Church to the Gentiles on the condition of faith only (ch. 10). Herod Agrippa sentences him to death as the chief leader of the sect of tlie Nazarenes (ch. 12). He takes a foremost place in the deliberations of the Congress at Jerusalem which determined the rela- tions tliat should thereafter exist between the Gentiles and the Jews, pronouncing that the Gen- tiles should be exempt from all Jewish ordinances (ch. 15). At this point the account in the Acts terminates, and the remainder of his career is obscure. That he travelled about preaching the gospel, accompanied by his wife (1 Co 9^), is certain, but the one place he is known to have visited is Antioch (Gal 2") in Syria, the second capital of Christianity. He may have gone to Greece (Euseb. HE II. xxv. 8) ; he may have preached in the provinces to whicli liis first letter is addressed (1 P P) ; it is possible that he spent some time in Babylon (1 P 5'^). From the far East he turned to Rome, where he died as a martyr according to our Lord's prediction, but when and under what con- ditions cannot be ascertained (Clem. Rom. Ep. ad Cor. V. 7).
Literature.— ii'ces of Christ ; the Comm. ; F. Godet, Studies mi the NT (Eng. tr. 1879), 246 ; G. B. Stevens, The Messages of the Apostles (1900), 42 ; G. Matheson, Representative Men of
the JVr(1905), 93; H. T. Purchas, Johannine Problems (1901), 68 ; J. G. Greenhough, Apostles of our Lord (19U4), 52, 221 ; W. M. Taylor, Peter the Apostle (1891); W. H. G. Tliomas, The Apostle Peter (1904) ; H. A. Birks, Life and Character of St. Peter (1887); S. Cox, Genesis of Evil (1880), 280, 351 ; W. B. Carpenter, Sow of Man (1893), 91 ; Expos. 3rd ser. iv. (1886) 183, ix. (1889) 187 ; JBL xvii. (pt. 2, 1898) 81.
W. Patrick.
PHARISEES.— L Origin and Development. — 1. Outline of history.— The Pharisees present the most characteristic manifestation of Pales- tinian Judaism in the time of Christ, and His work cannot be understood witliout a knowledge of them ; for ' later Judaism is through and tlirough Pharisaism and nothing but Pharisaism' (Bousset, Jesu Predigt, 1892, p. 32). The Pharisees were an outgrowth of the long conflict between the Jews and surrounding heathenism, from the Babylonian Captivity onward. That captivity impressed the following things upon Judaism : intense mono- theism, the Synagogue service, the OT Scriptures and Scribal interpretations of them, the Sabbath strictly observed as a sign of God's covenant, and a Puritan hatred of heathenism, which put the stamp of separation for ever ujion Pharisaic piety. The Reformers under Ezra and Nehemiaii were forerunners of the Pharisees, as the priestly court party under Zerubbabel foreshadowed the Saddu- cees. In these international relations — Jews in Palestine and in the Dispersion — Judaism grew gradually into a Church, and as such had an inner circle of the pious in contrast with mere adherents — ' children of the world.' This transition cannot be fully traced, but appears well marked under the Maccabees (B.C. 167-63). The Macedonian policy of Alexander made the East Greek ; the Romans made the West Latin ; Persia and Carthage were overthrown ; then Rome absorbed the Hellenistic East ; and a world-system for the first time appeared when Jesus was born under the first Emperor. The denationalizing jirocess prepared by Greece and introduced by Rohie afi'ected even the Jews, and helped to produce the Synagogue church system. But Pharisaic Judaism reacted strongly against it at first, and under the Macca- bees battled for religious independence. When, however, the Maccabsean princes fought further for civil liberty, the Pharisaic party withdrew and formed a theocratic group, democratic in a measure, which soon gained the leadership of the majority of the nation. These Hdsidlm, or Puritans of the century before Christ, became the Pharisees of NT times. They received the name ' Pharisees,' or separated, when they withdrew from the Sadducee court party of the Maccabajan rulers under John Hyrcanus (B.C. 135-105). They were the men of d/uLi^ia (2 Mac 14^) from everything heathen and impure. Their aim was in daily life to be as cere- monially pure as tlie priests were in the Temple.
2. Differences between Pharisees and Sadducees. — The chief differences were the following : (1) the Pharisees 'delivered to the people a great many observances by ti'adition which are not written in the law of Mcses' (Jos. Avf. xiii. x. 6). These the Sadducees for the mo.st part rejected. (2) The Pharisees had an elaborate doctrine of immortality, resurrection, angels, demons, lieaven, hell, inter- mediate state, and Messianic Kingdom, about all of whicli the Sadducees were Jignostio. (3)' The Pharisees taught both predestination and free-will, — much as St. Paul did, — while the Sadilucees hekl the Greek doctrine of absolute free-Avill. (4) Tlie Pharisees had a high theory of the theocracy, which led them to oppose foreign interference from the time of the Syrian kings to the Roman emperors, and reject also the Maccaba^an rule as inconsistent with the high priesthood. The Psalms of Solomon are full of sharp utterances against the Sadducee rulers (e.g. 4^ 3* 9*). It was this theo-