During the last century of the Republic, Rome and Italy Avere torn by a long succession of ruinous civil Avars. It said much for the machinery of the
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government that foreign enemies did not imperil its very existence. There was a longing among all the better citizens for an era of peace and prosperity, and it had become increasingly clear that this goal could be reached only nnder an Imperial rule. The need of the time was satisfied by Augustus, who ruled as autocrat under consti- tutional forms. The appearance of a republic was retained, but the reality was gone, and the appear- ance itself gradually disappeared also. For the city the Empire was a time of luxurj^ and idleness, but the provinces entered upon an era of progressive prosperity. The Emperor was responsible for the government of all provinces where an army was necessary, and governed these by j)aid deputies of his own. The older and more settled provinces were governed by officials appointed by the senate, but the Emperor had his financial interests looked after by procurators of his own even in these. The provinces were now much more protected against the rapacity and cruelty of governors. The Em- perors themselves stood for just as well as efficient administration, and most of them gave a noble example by strenuous devotion to administrative business.
The resident Romans in any province consisted of (1) the officials connected with the government, who were generally changed annually ; (2) members of the great financial companies, and lesser business men, whose interests kept them there, — the pub- licans of the Gospels w-ere agents of the former ; (3) citizens of colonice (or military settlements), which were really parts of Rome itself set down in the provinces ; (4) soldiers of the garrison and their officers. These formed the aristocracy of any city in which they lived. A fifth class of Roman citizens niight be made out of those natives of the province who, for services rendered to the State, were individually gifted with the citizenship. It was a great honour, which was not conferred on all the inhabitants of the Empire till A.D. 212.
The Romans have left a great legacy to the world. As administrators, lawyers, soldiers, engi- neers, ai-chitects, and builders, they have never been surpassed. In literature they depended mainly on the Greeks, but they claimed that satire was a native product. So with sculpture, music, paint- ing, and medicine. In the arts they never attained more than a respectable standard, by imitating the Greeks, who could turn their hands to anything.
Literature. — For an account of Rome itself, nothing sur- passes the various works of R. Laiiciani (all published by Mac- niillan) : Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Diseoverie-t, Pagan and Christian Rome, The Ruins and Excavations of Ancient Rome, The Destruction of Ancient Rome, and New Tales of Old Rome,— see also his chapters in W. Ramsajs A Mamial of Roman Antiquities'^^ (London, 1894); three excellent Maps, with Key, are in H. Kiepert and Ch. Huelsen, Formce Urbis Roma; An- tiqute : accedit nomenclator topographicus (Berlin, 1896). For the Forum, see Ch. Huelsen, The Roman Forum : its History and its Monmnents (Rome, 1906). For the general history, Th. Mommsen, The History of Rome, 5 vols. (London, Macmillan) [the Republic], The History of the Roman Provinces, 2 vols, [one aspect of Imperial history] ; H. F. Pelhani, Outlines of Roman History (London, 1893, 4th edition, 1905), a masterly work ; J. B. Bury, A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (London, 1893, 1896, and later). On the political life, A. H. J. Greenidge, Roman Public Life (London, 1901). On the literature, W. S. Teuffel, History of Roman Literature, 2 vols. (London, 1891-92) ; and esp. M. Schanz, Geschichte der Romischen Litteratur, four parts (second half of part 4 to complete the work, as yet unpub- lished), (Miinchen ; first three parts in second edition : publi- cation began 1892). The above list constitutes only a small selection of the ^'ery best works on what appear to be the more unportant topics. ALEX. SOUTER.
ROOF — See House in vol. i. p. 753'^.
ROOT (^ifa).— The 'root 'is that part essential to the life of a plant (Mt 138, Mk 46), which pene- trates the earth, and draws sap and nourishment from the soil. 'Root' is, therefore, taken to
signify that condition of heart without which religious life is impossible (Mt 13", Lk S^^). The intelligent and stable Christian is described as ' rooted ' in love (Eph 3^'), and ' rooted ' in Christ (Col 2''). Utter destruction is signified by pluck- ing up by the root (Mt 13-9, Jude ^'). The Bap- tist's vivid ' the axe is laid unto the root' (Mt 3^", Lk 3'') points to the complete overthrow he desired for the rampant growth of evils in his day. As applied to Christ (Rev 5' 22'6), the title 'Root' probably means more than ' branch or sucker from an ancient root.' Rather does it point to Him as Himself the 'root' whence David and his tribe sprang, appearing at last to manifest His tran- scendent power and glory. W. EwiNG.
RUE [irri-yavov, Ruta graveolcns) is a low-growing shrubby plant of the natural order Rutaceae, and is still cultivated in Palestine. It has a strong, unpleasant smell, and is bitter and pungent to the taste. The ancient Romans made use of the leaves of rue for culinary purposes. An essential oil, which is obtained by distillation with water, is used in medicine, chiefly as an antispasmodic. In Lk ll''^, where the only Biblical allusion to rue occurs, it is named along with mint (wli. see) as one of the common garden herbs on which the Pharisees paid tithe. HUGH DUNCAN.