L1TERAT0RE. — The usage of terms may be studied in artt. ' Holiness ' and ' Sanctification ' in Hastings' DB. For general reference, of. Beyschlag, NT Theol. ; Stevens, The Christian Doctrine of Salvation and The Theology of NT ; Harnack, What is Christianity ? ; Forrest, The Axdhority of Christ ; the Comm. in the Internal. Critical Commentary series. The teaching of Christ is examined by Bruce in The Kingdom of God and The Training of the Twelve ; Wendt, The Teaching' of Jesus ; Du Hose, The Gospel in the Gospels ; Denney, The Death of Christ ; and Comm. on the Gospels by Swete, Godet, and Westcott. Bruce discusses the Pauline teaching in St. Paul's Conception of Christianity ; cf. the Comm. of Lightfoot, Westcott, Delitzsch, and Godet, which are most suggestive ; also Haupt on First Epistle of St. John. Some of the Sermons in Inge's Faith and
Knowledge deal with Sanctification in a fresh manner. Valuable discourses on the psychological and physiological aspects are contained in Coe's Education in Religion and Morals and The Spiritual Life. Amongst modern devotional books, Horton's I'he Open Secret and Gordon's Quiet Talks on Power may be highly recommended. The teaching of an influential modern school is contained in ' Addresses on Holiness ' (Star Hall Con- vention, Manchester). Ref. may also be made to C. H. Spurgeon, The Messiah, p. 579; H. W. Webb-Peploe, Calls to Holiness (1900) ; W. L. Watkinson, The Blind Spot (1899), p. 57 ; A. J. Gordon, Yet Speaking (1897), p. 9.
J. Edward Roberts.
SAND (dfj.fj.os). — Sand, which, however closely packed and hard, seems almost to melt at the touch of water, is a foundation on which only a fool would build (Mt T^"). St. Luke in the parallel passage gives iwl ttjv yrjv, ' on the earth ' (6*^). The surface of the earth, baked hard in the heat, goes swiftly to soft mud when the rains come.
W. EWING.
SANDAL, SHOE.— A covering for the feet was rendered necessary by the burning heat of the ground as well as by the presence of stones and thorns. Such protection was especially required by men on a journey, by shepherds on the hills, and by peasants when cutting wood or collecting thorns for fuel. An Oriental shepherd with bare feet and a crook-headed staft' is one of the ignorant traditions of Western sacred art. The sandal con- sisted of a thick sole of leather attached to the foot by thongs of the same material. The transition to the shoe form was marked by a slipper-like cover and a supporting band behind the heel, which latter, however, the wearer often preferred to press down when walking.
In the East the foot can only be alluded to apolo- getically, and reference to the shoe is one of the commonest expressions of contempt. To be un- worthy to unloose the latchet of His shoe was an intense repudiation of all thought of comparison with Christ ( Jn P''). As the shoe was in immediate contact with the common ground, it was removed at the entrance to houses and sacred buildings. As socks are not usually worn in the East, dust is effectively removed either by taking off the shoe and beating it on a stone, or by projecting the foot with the toes bent upwards so that the dust may fall out from the open heel of the shoe (Mt 10^*).
The Roman soldier, like the Eastern shepherd, had nails in the shoe to prevent slipping, and thus the missionary symbolism of Eph 6^^ meant deter- mination as well as direction.
G. M. Mackie.
SANHEDRIN. — The supreme council and high court of justice in Jerusalem during the Greek and Roman periods.
1. Names and Composition.— (a) Of the whole body : (a) Greek : (1) avviSpiov, so first, in point of historical reference, in Jos. Ant. XIV. ix. 3-5, and thereafter frequent in Josephus and NT. (2) yepovaia, first, in point of reference, in Ant. xil. iii. 3 ; frequent in OT Apocrypha : once in NT, Ac 5^^ (cf. below). (3) ^ovXrj, fairly frequent in Josei:)hus, especially in the BJ, but NT never uses /Soi^Xi? in this sense, though jSovXevrris is used of Joseph of Arimathsea in Mk 15^=* and Lk 23^". (4) wpecx^vTipiov, Lk 22^^, Ac 22^ (5) Josephus also uses t6 koivov, or Koivbv tGiv 'lepoaoXvfMTQv, esp. in the Vita, with special reference to the Sanhedrin. (/3) Hebrew : (1) In the Talmudic literature the commonest word is j'Tjri^p, a transliteration of a-wedpiov, also written fJIIPj and even 'lin^S) from which again plurals were formed ni'-jirrip,' or niN"i-in^D (cf. JastroM', Diet, of Talmud, 1005). Variations are nVn^ piinjP and inxi D'j;3^ ht? ]'11!:^^0. (2) hSiin yn n'3. (3) On Has- monsean coins "inn 'collegium,' is associated with the reigning high priest, and presumably designates the Sanhedrin.
These names throw light upon the cc^iposition and functions of the court, awiopi-^v suggests a
SANHEDRIN
sa:n'hedrin
567
court of justice, and so, still more explicitly, does yi n'3. yepovcria is a term applied only to aristo- cratic councils, and the Hasmonrean "inn suggests an aristocratic body associated with the monarch.*
(h) Of its component pttrts. Quite as suggestive are the names of the various classes of members of the court. The principal expressions, ignor- ing minor variations, are oi d/JX'epf'J, oi dpxovTfi, oi irpecr^vTepoi, oi Swaroi, ol TTpZTot, ol yvJjpifioi, oi ypa/nfMaTeis. Some of these terms are interchange- able, or nearly so, and they fall into three main classes. (1) Most important of all were the dpxi-epeis, the chief priests, the members of the sacerdotal aristocracy. In Josephus and NT they are almost invariably mentioned first when the names of the classes composing the Sanhedrin are given (cf. Mt 27^' ; Jos. BJ II. xvii. 2, and fre- quently). Often they are the only class particu- larly mentioned (cf. Mk 14'^ oi apxiepeh Kal bXcf rb (jvvfSpLov). The high priest was president of the court according to Josephus and NT (cf. Ac 5", which testifies not only to the presidency of the high priest, but also to the fact that the priestly party was Sadducee ; cf. also Jos. Ant. XIV. ix. 3-5, and other passages from both sources). This is in agreement with the general constitution of tlie post-exilic Jewish community, in which civil as well as religious authority was in the hands of the high priest. The pi'iestly nobility were the leading persons in the community, and they were the most conspicuous members of the Sanhedrin. See Chief Priests, High Priest. The apxavres may be roughly identified with the apxiepeh as the ' rulers ' of the community. Occasionally they are mentioned where one would expect apx^epe'ts: so frequently in Josephus (cf. Ac 4^ toi)s dpxovras Kal Tovs TTpeffPuripovs Kal tovs ypafi/xareis, v.* dpxovre^ tov \aov Kal TTpea^vrepoi \\ v.-* oi apxi-^peis Kal oi Trpecr^vTepoi). Very occasionally, however, the dpxovres are mentioned alongside of the dpxiepecs (cf. Lk 23^^), showing that the term might be used loosely for 'leaders' or 'rulers.' (2) irpea^vrepoL— D'jpt, in the first instance a general name for the principal men of the community, and so, apparently, a general designation of members of the Sanhedrin (cf. TTpea^vripiov). But in actual jiractice it de- scribes those members who were neither dpx^epeh nor ypap-p-aTeh. The wpfa^iJTepoL made common cause with the dpxi^fpeis against the ypafi/xaTeh, i.e. they belonged in general to the Sadducee party (cf. Ac 23^"^''). With this class may be identified the dwaroi, wpwroi, or yvcbpiju-oi (unless qualified in some way, as, yvupt/xoi tQv ^apia-ai<iii>). Josephus frequently uses dwarol along with dpxiepeh, evi- dently as the equivalent of Trpe(T^vT€poi. They were the secular nobility of Jerusalem, closely allied to the sacerdotal aristocracy. (3) ol ypafifxare^s, the scribes, a class which hai'dly requires description here. In the main they formed the Pharisee element in the Sanhedrin, though individual members of the other classes may have been Pharisees, and many Pharisees, adhering to the scribal party, were not themselves professional scribes. See SCRIBES.