Literature. — The Comni. on the passages quoted, esp. West- cott, Gosp. of St. John, and Bruce and Dods in EGT ; Taylor Innes, The Trial of Jesus Christ : A Lecial Monograph (1899) ; Rosadi, The Trial of Jesiis (1905) ; Farrar, Christ in Art, p. 378fE., St. Paul, i. Excurs. xi. J. C. LAMBERT.
SCRIBES. — The Scribes were a class of learned Jews who devoted themselves to a scientific study of the Law, and made its exposition their pro- fessional occupation. The word which we translate 'scribes' is ypafifiareis, 'the learned,' which corre- sponds to the Hebrew Dnsio. This is their usual appellation, but they are also called in the Gospels, especially in Lk. , ' laAvyers' (I'o/itKot) and 'doctors of the law ' (vofiodLdda-KaXoL). See LAWYER. They are very frequently associated in the Synoptics with tlie Pharisees, and with the chief priests and elders, but there is no mention of ' scribes ' in the Fourth Gospel at all, except in the special pass- age dealing with the woman taken in adultery (Jn 83).
1. Origin, development, and characteristics. — (1) After the retui'n from the Exile the Jewish com- munity was organized under Ezra and Nehemiah on the basis of the regulations of the so-called Mosaic Law. At a great gathering of the people, of which an account is given in Neh 8-10, the Law was ijublicly read by Ezra, and a solemn covenant entered into for national obedience to it. Being thus established as the binding rule of both civil and religious life, it became necessary that the Law should be tlioroughly studied and interpreted to the i^eople, who otherwise could not reasonably be expected to comprehend fully its principles and their application. This duty at first fell naturally to the priests, who for a time continued the main teachers and guardians of the Law. But gradually there grew up an independent class of men, other than the priests, who devoted themselves to the study of the Law, and made acquaintance with it their profession. These were the Scribes. Possibly at first their chief duty was to make copies of the Law, but the higher function of interpretation was soon added ; and as the supreme importance of the Law came more and more to be recognized, so the profession of a Scribe came to be held in higher estimation than even that of a priest.
(2) During the Grecian period of Jewish history, a strong feeling of opposition was developed between the Scribes and, at least, the higher order of the priests. Even in the time of Ezra a feud had arisen between those who held strictly by the I>aw — especially in the matter of foreign alliances — and those who, like the aristocratic high-priestly families, had sought to increase their influence by marriage Avith outsiders. And when, through the influence of Hellenic culture, the priestly aristocracy became infected with heathen ideas, and fell away from the laws and customs of Judaism, the duty of upholding the Law fell mainly upon the Scribes, wlio from that time forward became the real teachers of the people, and dominated their whole spiritual life. They were still, however, mainly religious students and teachers, and had taken
little part in political agitation. Their ideal was not to engage in any political scheme for throwing ott the foreign yoke, but to establish the Law of God in their own midst. The attempt of Antiochus Epiphanes to suppress the Jewish religion compelled them to change their cliaracter, and drove them into open rebellion. Among the most strenuous opponents of his endeavour to Hellenize the Jews were the Hasidseans, or party of 'the pious,' who may be taken to represent the strictest adherents of the teaching of the Scribes, and who carried their ideas of the sanctity of the Law to the suicidal extent of refusing to defend themselves when attacked on the Sabbath. But it was only the maintenance of the Jewish religion for which they fought, and they had no objections to alien rule, provided they were allowed freedom of faith. This object they regarded as accomplished by the treaty with Lysias, which provided at once for their political subjection and for their religious freedom. When, therefore, it became clear that the Maccabsean party were aiming also at the political independence of the nation, the Hasidaans separated from them, and in the time of John Hyrcanus we find the Pharisees — ' the separated ' — who practically represented the same party as the Hasidseans, in opposition to the Hasmonsean or Maccabaean dynasty. See Pharisees.
(3) From this time onward to the time of Christ the influence of the Scribes became more and more l)redominant. They were given seats in the Sanhedrin, and were held in very high respect by the people. Tliey never, indeed, became the governing class, but in the councils of the nation their influence could ahvays be depended upon to outweigh that of the priestly aristocracy, who held the high appointments. They were usually addressed as ' Rabbi,' i.e. 'my master,' an appella- tion which gradually developed into a title, though not till after the time of Christ. The honour in A\hich they were held by their pupils, and by others, was extraordinary, even exceeding the honour accorded to parents, and they were very particular in exacting it, claiming generally every- where the first rank. Their scribal labours were understood to be gratuitous, and, if they had no private fortune, they had to provide for their livelihood by combining some secular business with their study of the Law ; but the latter was always regarded as their most important occupa- tion. It is questionable, however, if the theory of gratuitous instruction was ahvays strictly adhered to.