In the rest of the NT jxaKapios is less used than in the Gospels. St. Paul has it twice only (Ro 4^* ^), and then in an OT quotation. In 1 Ti V^ and 6^"* (never in the Gospels) it is applied to God, but in this sense evXoy-riTos is usual. In regard to men, it is applied to those who give (Ac 20^^), who are for- given (Ro 4^-^), who endure temptation (Ja V^), who act according to the perfect law of liberty (Ja 1^), who die in the Lord (Rev 14^^ ; see also Rev P 16'= ig'' 20" 22''- "). It stands for a good which is above happiness, and dwells not least with those who are counted worthy to sacrifice happi- ness for conscience' sake. It is based, partly, on a character which is its own ' better and abiding pos- session ' (He 10^'*™). While it remains itself, it is above all adequate earthly reward and beyond all earthly overthrow. Above all, it is based in the spiritual world ; to the ' pure in heart ' the highest blessedness is to ' see God ' (]Mt 5« ; cf. 1 Jn 3^- »).
For various aspects of the idea of blessedness, as expressed in the NT by quite other words, see art. ' Blessedness ' in HDB.
Literature. — Art. ' Blessedness ' in HDB, SDB, and DCG ; also F. C. Kempson, The Future Life, 1907, p. 308 ; J. M. Hodgson, Relujion — The Quest of the Ideal, 1911, p. 106 ; T. G. Selby, The Imperfect Angel, 1888, p. 25 ; T. Binney, King's Weigh- house Chapel Sermons, 1869, p. 71 ; J. B. Lightfoot, Sermons in St. Paul's Cathedral, 1891, p. 178.
C. H. Watkins. BLESSING.— See Benediction.
BLINDNESS. — Only once does this term refer to
the absence of physical sight (Ac 13^'), yet even there moral blindness is symbolized (cf. also the case of St. Paul, Ac 9*''^* 201', a temi)orary condition due to suggestion, or to sudden severe nervous tension which soon gave place to normal sight). All the otiier references to blindness (Ro 2'", 2 Co 4'», 2 P P, 1 Jn 2'i, Rev 3") are metaphysical and
BLOOD
BLOOD
153
indicate a moral condition. Apart from tlie general iitness of such a figure to signity a moral condition, a special reason for its use by St. Paul is found in his experience before and after his conversion. — 1. Blindness is alleged as a simple fact without ex- planation (2 P 1», Rev 3'^).— 2. It is referred to the character and influence of the world, from which some of those who have joined themselves to the Christian community have not yet emerged — they still remain in the darkness in which they were before (1 Jn 2").— 3. The god of this world, or Satan, who is supposed to have power over the course of affairs in the present age, is assigned as the cause of this condition (cf. Eph 6'^; Ascension of Isaiah, ed. Charles, 1900, pp. 11, 24, where Beliar = the ruler of this world). — i. To God is attributed in part the activity which results in moral blindness (Ac 28'-^, Ro IP- "). This concep- tion belongs to the circle of Jewish religious ideas — the prophetic doctrine of the absoluteness of God, the Pharisaic teaching of Divine predestination. Both of these lay in the background of St. Paul's thought (cf. Is 69.10^ Ps 69:3_ Rq 920*.)^ yet other elements also entered into and modified it. From the point of view of the Divine absoluteness, the Apostle did not doubt that God had the unques- tioned right to be the sole cause of blindness in one or of sight in another — a prerogative which, how- ever. He refrained from exercising. Hence a somewhat ditierent explanation was to be sought for the blindness of Israel. That God had rejected the Jews as a whole was for the Apostle abundantly evident. Yet this did not contradict God's election and promise. Israel's guilt had, indeed, for the time being, annulled these ; still, this was only one side of the reality. God's rejection of Israel was neither without purpose nor was it irrevocable. God's purpose was universal, embracing Gentiles as well as Jews, and if it appeared to pass from the Jews to the Gentiles, this was not the whole truth, nor was it final. For, firstly, some Jews had always remained faithful to the election, and secondly, the blindness of the remainder was only temporaiy — until the 'fullness of the Gentiles,' when all Israel, beholding the salvation of the Gentiles, should once more turn to God. The blindness is marked by two features. It is conceived of as per- taining not to individuals, but to the community ; and it is one stage in the unfolding of a vast theodicy. The latter fact does not, however, re- lieve tiie community of either responsibDity or guilt. AYliether all the community living in the interim, that is, previous to the removal of the social blindness, will share in the recognition and acceptance of the election, is not considered by the Apostle. In the other passages of the AV the Greek words which are translated ' blinded ' (Ro IP, 2 Co 3'^) and 'blindness' (Ro U^, Eph 4^^) are replaced in the RV by their proper equivalents 'hardened' and 'hardness,' which express also in- sensibility to the truth of the gospel.