CROSS, CRUCIFIXION.— The English word' is derived from the Latin o'ux through the French croix (Old French and ISIiddle English, crois). The Greek aravpds is wider in its meaning than the English word, and includes the upright stake, crux simplex, to which the criminal was bound or upon which he was impaled, as well as the crux com- posita, of various shapes. In the NT, however, ffTavpos is confined to the usual English significa- tion, and is equivalent to crux. It was the instru- ment upon which criminals suffered death, and the references in the NT are chiefly to the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, the instrument becoming the symbol of the cardinal doctrine of the Christian faith, the atonement and the work of human re- demption, and in general the gospel itself.
1. Archaeological. — The crossing of two lines at right angles as a symbol not only antedates Chris- tianity, but is of the remotest antiquity, being pre- historic in origin. The primitive form of the cross was probably the gammate cross {crux gammata) known by the Sanscrit name of swastika, as it is designated by students of archaeology. The form
of this cross j-C, used as a token of benediction and
good luck, has been found on the ruins of ancient Troy, on the Hittite monuments, in Cyprus, and in Greece. In pre-historic times it was used, according to de Mortillet, as a symbol of consecration and not as a merely ornamental device. The gammate cross has been found on ancient Buddhist remains, and it was largely employed by the Buddiiists. It has also been seen upon jewels and weapons amongst the Gallic, the German, and the Scandi- navian peoples, in China, and Ashanti, and amongst tlie South American Indians. Although it was used by the early Christians as a prophylactic symbol, it was often placed alongside the otiier forms of cross. In Egypt the cross is found in the
jtaintings on the tombs in the form -O-, as the key
of life ; and although its material origin is doubtful, the symbolism clearly indicates the vital germ.
From Egypt its use extended to the Phoenicians, and afterwards to all the Semitic tribes.
2. Historical. — The relation of the non-Christian symbolism of the cross to that of the Christian Church need not be discussed here, although the connexion is held by some writers to be very close. We are on sure ground, however, in tracing the Christian doctrine of the cross to the historic basis as found in the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. This mode of execution was exceedingly ancient in the Orient, and it was practised amongst the Phconi- cians (Valer. ii. 7), the Egyptians (Time. i. 110), and the Persians (Herod, ix. 120). Amongst the Romans it was a punishment considered too de- grading for the citizens of the Empire (Josephus, Ant. XX. vi. 2, BJ IL xii. 6, xiv. 9, V. xi. 1). Cicero [in Verr. II. v. 66) speaks of it as being the severest penalty, reserved only for slaves ('servi- tutis extremum summumque supplicium'). It was inflicted upon those convicted for highway robbery, piracy, and similar crimes (Petron. Ixxii. ; Flor. III. xix. ), also for the public accusation of a master by a slave, for sedition, tumult, or false witness. The arbor infelix spoken of by Cicero is suggestive of the penalty of crucifixion {pro Babir. iii. ti'.). The Jews did not crucify their criminals whilst they were alive, although dead bodies were hanged by them to the accursed tree ; consequently the execution of Jesus Christ was carried out by the Romans. The Jewish mode of execution was by stoning to death (Lv 202 2416- 23^ Dt 13'» 17», etc.).
There were generally two forms of cross used in capital punishment : the crux simplex, which con- sisted of a single stake to which the victim was fastened or upon which he was impaled ; also the ci'ux compacta. The latter Avas made of cross pieces of wood and took the form of : (a) the criix andreana or crux deciissata, in shape like the Greek X ; or (6) the crux cominissa, in the shape of the letter T or Greek Tau ; or (c) the crux irnmissa, in which the vertical trunk extended higher than the transverse beams. It was upon the last-named form of cross, according to the testimony of the Fathers, that Jesus was crucified. Matthew tells us (27^^) that the titulus was placed over {i-rrdvo}) the head of Jesus.
Crucifixion was preceded by scourging {virgis ccedere), according to the custom of the Romans, after which the prisoner was compelled to carry his cross, or at least the transverse portion of it, to the place of execution. There the cross would be uplifted, and the victim bound to it by cords {toller e in crucem). Then he would be fastened to it by three (or perhaps four) nails (Lipsius, de Cruce, II. vii.), and probably also supported by ropes (Pliny, xxviii, § 46), and the placard or titulus bearing the name of the criminal and his sentence would be fastened to the upper portion. The con- demned man would in the ordinary way die of hunger and thirst in the course of time ; but in order to shorten the duration of the agony, the legs of the suflerer might be broken, although this practice was not common amongst the Romans. Nor would the Romans permit the removal of the corpse without special authorization.