Literature.— G, A. Smith, HGHL, 1897, p. 641 ff. ; Bae- deker, Handbook to Syria and Palestine, 1912, p. 298 fif.; W. Smith, Diet, of Gr. and Rom. Geog. i. [1856] 748; R. W. Pounder, St. J'aul and his Cities, 1913, p. 58 ; H. Macmillan, Gleanings in Holt/ Fields, 1899, pp. 101, 114 ; E. B. Redlich, St. Paul and his Companions, 1913.
James Straiian. DARKNESS.— See LIGHT AND Darkness.
DART.— See Armour.
DATES. — The dates of the Apostolic Age are interlinked with those of the NT as a whole. No sinfjle date is fixed with the absolute precision which modem historical science demands in the case of recent or contemporaneous chronology. Although some individual dates are so nearly agreed upon that all practical ends aimed at in chronology are secured, yet, in the words of W. M. Ramsay,
'No man can as yet prove his own opinion about chronology and order in the New Testament to the satisfaction of other scholars ' [Exjjositor, 8th ser., ii. [1911] 154). In re-stating the information ac- cessible on these dates, it aaIU be well to exhibit clearly the limits of the apostolic period, to repro- duce some Roman ImiJerial dates, to fix some pivotal points which may serve as landmarks, and to determine the times of some of the important events in the life of the Christian community so far as they can be related to the above. What has been said of the difficulty of reaching indisput- able results will be found to be especially true of the last part of this task.
I, General Limit Dates. — In its broadest ac- ceptance (in ecclesiastical history) the Apostolic Age begins with the birth of Jesus Christ (usually reckoned as 4 B.C.), and ends with the passing of the last of the apostles from the scene of action, i.e. the death of John in the reign of Trajan, or, for the sake of convenience, A.D. 100. In a narrower sense, the first 33 years of this general period are not included in the Apostolic Age. They constitute an epoch by themselves. The problems raised in them are connected with the life and work of Jesus, and the story is told in the Canonical Gospels. In this definition of it, the Apostolic Age begins with the Day of Pentecost, or at the point where the author of Acts takes up the story ; and it ends with the last of the apostles. In a still narrower sense, the period beginning with the Fall of Jerusalem (A.D, 70) is thrown off on the ground that ' NT history may fitly be said to close with the great catastrophe of A.D. 70' (Turner in HDB i. 415»'). This limita- tion may be further justified by the fact that the de- struction of the Temple established a new order of things not simply with reference to Judaism, but also to the Avhole apostolic activity, and that the only items of importance in Christian history that can be included in a chronology subsequent to that event are the dates of some apostolic (or other NT) writings.
The date of the Crucifixion. — Since the Apostolic Age begins with the Day of Pentecost, the question of the year in which the Crucifixion occurred falls to be briefly revicAved here. The line of departure for the chronology of the Crucifixion is given by the Gospel narratives. These name both the Roman and the JoAvish rulers of the day. The Roman Emperor Avas Tiberius (A.D. 14-37), the procurator of Judsea Avas Pontius Pilate (A.D. 26-36), the high priest of the Jcavs Avas Caiaphas (A.D. 25[?]-34[?]). Since Pilate must have been procurator for tAvo or three years before the case of Jesus came for trial (cf. Jos, Ant. XVIII. iii. 1-3, BJ il. ix. 2-4), and since, according to St. Luke, the Avhole ministry of Jesus falls after the 15th year of Tiberius (A.D. 29, if sole reign is meant, and 27, if co-regency Avitli Augustus), it folloAvs that the earliest year for the Crucifixion is 28.* The latest limit is fixed by the fact that after 34 Caiaphas Avas no longer high priest. BetAveen 28 and 34, hoAvever, the deter- mination of the exact year is facilitated by the astronomical calculations as to the coincidence of Passover Avith the day of the Aveek implied in the Gospel narratiA^e. There is a margin of uncertainty on this point ; but, Avhichever Avay the perplexing problem is solved, the year 29 or 30 still satisfies the conditions.t As betAveen the tAvo years to Avhich the discussion narroAVS doAvn the choice, the year 30 seems upon the Avliole, in AdeAV of traditional as well as internal grounds, to be the more satisfac- tory.
* The question is somewhat complicated by the uncertainty as to the length of the ministry of Jesus (cf. L. Fendt, Die Dauer der offentlicfien Wirksamkeit Jesu, 1906 ; W. Homanner, Die Dauer der offentlichen Wirksamkeit Jesu, 1908).
t For full discussion see Turner in UDB i. 410 ; cf. also art. 'Dates 'in DCG'u 413.
DATES
DATES
275
A.D.
Tiberius
. 14-37
Caligula
. 37-41
Claudius
. 41-54
Nero .
. 54-68
Galba .
. 68-69
otho
. 69-70
The net results ai-rived at for limiting dates, therefore, are :
(1) The Apostolic Church = 4 b.c.-a.d. 100.
(2) The Apostolic Age = A.D. 30-100.
(3) The Apostolic Era=A.D. 30-70.