As the word TrapaKX-rjcns has many shades of meaning, so the ' exhortations ' referred to in the NT have many tones of emotional stimulus. In fact, the character of the exhortation was deter- mined by the circumstances which called it forth. In times of threatened apostasy it was admonitory ; amid persecution and danger it promoted comfort. Often TrapdK\7]cns can only mean 'comfort' {q.v.), and in all such instances it is so translated in both AV and RV (Ac 9^\ Ro 15\ 2 Co P^-) ; but in all cases where the AV renders it ' exhortation ' the RV does the same (excejjt in 1 Co 14^ where it might with advantage be retained instead of ' comfort '). Similarly the verb Trapa/caX^w is often appropriately translated 'comfort 'in both versions, but, again, wherever in AV the sense requires ' exhort ' it so appears in the text of RV (except in Ac 18^ ' encourage' and 2 Co 9' ' intreat'). To grasp the meaning of 'exhort' and 'exhortation,' as technical terms, it should be noticed that the verb TrapaKaXeu is, in many cases, translated ' pray ' or ' desire ' in AV, and ' beseech ' or ' intreat ' in RV when, however, the appeal so expressed springs from some personal wish or judgment, whereas the terms ' exhort ' and ' exhortation ' are retained for instances where the basis of appeal is some Divinely-given truth or revelation (cf. -rrapeKaXovv, ' besought,' Ac IS'*-, and TrapaKaXovvTfs, ' exhorting,' Ac 14-''). Exhortation proper (i.e. as part of the apostolic ministry), while it contained elements of personal entreaty ('we beseech and exhort' [1 Th 4']), partook more of the nature of a spiritually authoritative message ('as though God were in- treating, or exhorting [Oeod vapaKaXovi/Tos], by us,' 2 Co 5-«; cf. 1 Th 2-«-), reproving (Tit 2^5), en- couraging (1 Th 2"), commanding (2 Th 3^-), strengthening (Ac 14^^, 15^-), edifying (1 Th 5^'), and, where successful, leading the hearers to a proper state of mind or to right conduct (Tit 2^^-, 1 P 5"-).
It might be given to individuals, e.g. to Titus (2 Co 8"), to Timothy (1 Ti P), to Euodia and Syntyche (Ph 4-) ; or it was a message addressed
to the congregations, generally in their meetings for edification, either verbal (Ac 13^^ 20-, 1 Co 14^) or epistolary (Ac lo^^'"-, He 13--, 1 P S^-, Jude^).
Naturally exhortation was prominent at a time when a speedy Second Coming of Christ was ex- pected ('exhorting ... so much the more as ye see the day drawing nigh,' He 10-^ ; cf. 1 Th 41**). The power of exhortation was regarded as one of the charismata, or ' gifts ' bestowed by the Holy Spirit, for the edification of believers (Ro 12*, 1 Co 14^). Barnabas, or ' son of exhortation,' was so surnamed by the apostles (Ac 4-*8 RVm) because he was endowed with a large measure of this gift (Ac 11-^). But it was a gift that could be culti- vated. Its intensity and power could be increased by proper attention, and so St. Paul urged Timothy to ' give heed to exhortation ' as wxll as to reading and teaching (1 Ti 4'3).
Literature. — H. Cremer, Bibl.-Theol. Lex. of NT Greek^, 18S0, s.v. irapa.K\r)<ji.'; ; O. Pfleiderer, Paulinism~, Eng. tr., 1891, vol. i. eh. vi. p. 236 ; see also Literature under art. Com- fort. M. Scott Fletcher.
EXORCISM. — 1. Origin and definition.— It is
pointed out in the art. DIVINATION that man, at a very early period, came to think of himself as sur- rounded by innumerable spirits, many of whom could enter into and influence him. He realized that it was his duty, and for his advantage, to cultivate friendly relations with these spirits, and one of the forms which this etibrt took developed into divination. The coming of a spirit into close relations with a man brought on him either calami- ties or blessings, and from these opposite results the spirits came to be grouped into good and bad. The entrance of a good spirit — a spirit of j^urity or truth— caused health of body or clearness of mind. Such indwelling in its highest form is insjjiration (Job 32*), The entrance of a bad spirit — a dumb, imclean, or evil sjjirit — caused disease of body or disorder of mind. In its most decided form this is possession {q.v.). The spirits, and the divinities into wliicli some of them developed, were free to enter into or leave a person, but their freedom was limited. As ' the sj)irits of the prophets are sub- ject to the prophets ' (1 Co 14^^), so certain persons came to know liow, by a proper use of special words and acts, to make the spirits, within certain limits, obedient to them. (1) Such experts were able to bring a jierson into such close contact with a spirit, or the thing in which a spirit or divinity dwelt, that the spirit could deal efl'ectively with the person. Such, bringing into contact developed, (a) where the person was able or willing, into administering to him an oath ; (b) where unable or unwilling, into solemnly adjuring him. (2) An expert could call up, call upon, or permit a spirit to enter another person, to work his will in him ; or enter into him- self to work with him or reveal secrets to him. (3) He could compel a spirit to come out of a person or thing into which it had entered ; with the result, if the spirit was an evil one, that the baneful con- sequences of possession immediately ceased. The expert who could do this was an exorcist, and his work was exorcism.