LiTERATtiiiB. — J. A. W. Neander, Die genetische EnlwiekeU ling der vornchinsten gnostiachcn Systeme, Berlin, 1818; F. C. Baur, Die christliche Ononis, Tiibingren, 1S35 ; R. A. Lipsius, Gnostic isimis, Leipzig, 18G0 ; H. L. Mansel, Gnostic Heresies 0/ the 1st ayid 2nd Centuries, London, 1875 ; A. Hilgenfeld, Die Ketzergeschichte des Urchristenthums, Leipzig, 18S4 ; W. Anz, Ursprung des Gnostizismus, do. 1897 ; R. Liechtenhahn, Die Ofenbarung im Gnosticisimts, Gottingen, 1901 ; E. de Faye, Introduction d I'itude du gnosticisme au He et au iii' siMe, Paris, 1903 ; W. Bousset, Uauptjirobleme der Gnosis, Gotting- en, 1907; A. Harnack, History of Dogma, Kng. tr., London, 1894-99 ; F. Loofs, Leitf. zum Studirnndcr Ddgmengeschichte^, Halle, 1893; R. Seeberg, Lchrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, Leipzig, 1895-98; Church Histories of P. SchafF (Edinburgh, 1883-93), W. Moeller fEng. tr., London, 1892-1900), G. P. Fisher (do. 1894), R. Rainy (Ancient Catholic Church, Edin- burgh, 1902). W. D. NiVEN.
GOAD
GOD
457
GOAD [KivTpov). — This was a pole about 8 ft. in length, carried by Eastern ploughmen. Armed at one end with a spike and at the other with a chisel-shaped blade, it was used now to urge the yoked beasts to move faster, now to clean the share. Only one hand being required to hold and guide the light plough, the other was free to wield the goad. The kicking of oxen against the goad (AV the pricks) suggested a popular metaphor for futile and painful resistance — aKXrjpov <tol irpbs Kiv- Tpa XaKTl^eiv (Ac 26^'* ; all uncials omit these words in 9^). The same figure is found in Find. Pi/th. ii. 173 ; JEsch. Protn. 323 ; Eurip. Bacch. 795 ; Terence, Phorm. I. ii. 28. James Steahan.
GOAT (Tpdyoi). — The Greek word signifies a 'he- goat' (Lat. hircus), and is used in the LXX as the equivalent of the Heb. words n^ny, t?v, ^".^ (all = ' he-goat '). The only NT references to the ' goat' outside the Gospels are in the Epistle to the Heb- rews (91-- 13. 19 lO-*). In 912- 19 it is associated with calves (i.e. bullocks), and there is doubtless an allusion in these two passages to tlie sacrificial rites of the Day of Atonement. On this occasion, the high priest ofl'ered up a bullock as a sin-oft'ering for himself (Lv 16^^), and a goat as a sin-otiering for the people (Lv 16'"). The usual phrase to de- signate sacrifices in general is used in 9'^ 10*, * bulls and goats' or 'goats and bulls.'
The general meaning of Q^-^' is quite clear. The writer says : ' if — and you admit this — the blood of goats and bullocks, as on the Day of Atonement, could sanctify unto the cleanness of the flesh, how much more could the Blood of Christ, the Divine-Human sacrifice, cleanse the conscience from dead works to serve the living God ! '
In 10* the writer abandons his rhetorical style .and categorically asserts that ' it is impossible for the blood of bulls and goats to take away sins.' He here uses the general term for sacrifices, and thereby denies that any of the sacrifices of the old Law ever did or ever could ' take away sins.'
Many different breeds of domesticated goats are known in Syria, the most common of which is the mambcr or ordinary black goat. These animals attain a large size, and pendent ears about a foot long are their most characteristic feature. Their peculiar ears are apparently alluded to in Am 3'^. They generally have horns and short beards. An- other breed found in N. Palestine is the angora, which has very long hair. Goats supplied most of the milk of Palestine (cf. Pr 27*^), and the young were often killed for food, being regarded as special delicacies, as they are to-day (cf. Gn 27^ Lk IS-**). Their long silky hair was woven into curtains, coverings of tents, etc. (cf. Ex 35-^ Nu 31-"), and as goat's-hair cloth, called cilicium, was made in the province of which Tarsus, the birth-place of St. Paul, was the capital, and was exported thence to be used in tent-making, it is reasonable to sup- pose that the Apostle was engaged in this very trade (Ac 18^). Their skins were sometimes used as clothing, and doubtless the hairy mantle of the prophets (cf. Zee 13*) was made of this material (cf. also He IP^), but they were more often con- verted into bottles. The early inhabitants of Palestine (cf. Gn 2\^^, Jos 9*, 1 S" 25>8, Mt 9", Mk 2", Lk 5^^), just like the modern Bedouins, utilized the skins of their cattle and their flocks for the purpose of storing oil, wine, milk, or water, as the case might be. The animals whose skins were generally chosen for the purpose were the sheep and the goat as at the present day, while the skin of the ox was used for very large bottles. The legs, or at all events the lower part of the legs, to- gether with the head, are first removed, the animal is next skinned from the neck downwards, great care being taken to avoid tearing the skin ; all
apertures are then carefully closed, and the neck is fitted with a leather thong which serves as a cork.
In view of the numerous uses which the goat has been made to subserve, it is not surprising to find that it was highly valued in ancient times even as it is now. A large part of the wealth of Laban and of the wages he paid to Jacob consisted of goats, while 'a thousand goats' is mentioned as one of the principal items in Nabal's property (1 S 25-). They thrive in hilly and scantily watered districts, where they are much more abundant than sheep, and pasture where there is much brush-wood, the luxuriant grasses of the plains being 'too succulent for their taste' (Tris- tram in Smith's DB^ 1200"). They are largely responsible for the barrenness of the hills, and the general absence of trees in Palestine.