See Ed. Zeller, Die Philosophie der Griechen*, Leipzig, 1909, vol. iii.
(e) History and science.— The Hellenistic period is one of collecting : Aristotle's work is continued, but tlie power of pervading the materials collected with a real constructive spirit is absent. There- fore history becomes a collection of single tales of
various kinds and often of very difi'erent value, not sifted critically, but put together without even an eflbrt to connect them. Similarly science is no- thing but a vast pile of collected materials, all kinds of real observations being mixed up with the most ridiculous superstitions. Great store is set by what is extraordinary, and only the miraculous is regarded as of any importance.
See J. P. Mahaffy, Greek Life and Thought from the Death of Alexander to the Roman Conquest'^, London, 1896.
{/) Civilization in general. — Hellenism marks a period of the highest civilization, in the sense that all the comforts of life wei'e highly developed. Travelling had become fairly easy, and whatever luxuries a refined life required were brought by tradesmen from the remotest parts of the world. Houses were furnished in the most costly way, marbles, metals, ivory-carvings, and mural paint- ings being frequently used in decoration. Even the cheap furniture in daily use by poor people was seldom without decoration.
The social difi'erences were enormous : there were a few very rich people while the majority of men were poor. Production was carried on by slaves, who were imported in great numljers from the East ; although there was also room for the work of free labourers. Politics did not occupy the citizen much, for power had passed from the democracy to the monarchy. The free citizen devoted his time mostly to athletics, and the games were always attended by a large crowd. These people were accustomed to be fed and entertained by the government or by rich politicians. To musical and theatrical performances were added competitions between orators. The cruel and sometimes vulgar amusements of the circus came more and more into vogue, and the people even wanted criminals to be executed in the arena. Hellenistic civilization made people unfeeling and at the same time Aveak and effeminate ; in spite of the humane doctrines of the Stoa, many people were cruel to their slaves and employees. Human life was not valued, and suicide was frequent.
See P. Wendland, Die hellenistisch-romische Kultur^ s (jn H. Lietzma,nn's Enndbuchzum NT, new ed.,Tuhingen, 1912); F. Baumgarten, F. Poland, R. Wagner, Die hellenische Kultur'^, Leipzig, 1913 ; J. P. Mahaffy, The Silver Age of the Greek World, Chicago, 1906.
(g) Beligion. — The old family-cults and State- cult were continued as a matter of course ; but there was a notable reduction of local cults, the greater gods, so to speak, swallowing up the minor heroes. On the other hand, a tendency towards deification and hero-worship was always introdu- cing new objects of worship. The most prominent was the worship of the kings, and, in the Koman period, of the Emperor.
As early as Plato the old Greek religion had changed from a more or less cheerful woi'ship of Nature into a kind of gloomy mysticism. The influence of the Oriental cults strengthened this tendency. Man tried to get rid of his own mortal nature by entering into mystical union with tlie divine nature. Immortality, continuation of life, became the prominent notions, and this brought to the front the conceptions of the hereafter and of the judgment, of a life of bliss and of penalties in the otiier world. The feeling of guilt became stronger and stronger. Men tried by all means to get rid of sin, which, however, did not mean to them moral so much as physical evil. Thus the Oriental rites gained all the greater influence, because they promised to relieve men from sin and death by letting them share in the life of the deity. The means to this end were mostly sacramental, i.e. pliysical : communion with the god was effected by eating and drinking at certain sacred meals, with the use of certain sacred vessels, and certain sacred
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fornniln\ by going through a number of symbolical performances and keeping many rules, the reason of which nobody could explain. The individual rite ventured to give full assurance of life, but tiie faithful usually resorted to a variety of rites, and the priests could not object to this ; their religion was tolerated and must be tolerant : this is implied in the system of polytlieism. The important feat- ure is not the individual rite, but the whole attitude of mind produced by these Mysteries.
See F. Cumont, Les Religions orientales dans le paganisme romain~, Paris, 1909 ; R. Reitzenstein, Die hellenistinchen Mysterienrelifiionen, Leipzig, 1910 ; L. R Farnell, art. ' Greek Religion ' in ERE vi. 420-5.
2. Hellenism as hellenization of the Orient. —
Alexander had conquered the Orient, i.e. Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, Persia, etc., and his suc- cessors founded there several kingdoms. But his idea was not only to subdue the Orient by force for political purposes, but to pervade it witii the spirit of Greek civilization, and at the same time to make Oriental and Greek culture a unity. A marriage between East and West, symbolized by his own wedding with Roxane at Persepolis, was his aim. In fact, the Greek dynasties of the Attalids, Seleu- cids, Ptolemys, etc., succeeded in imposing on their respective dominions a veneer of Greek culture : the Greek language was used at the court, in the army, on the coinage, in inscriptions, and as the common language in many of the colonies and towns founded by tJiese kings ; Greek law was used — with local modifications ; Greek cults were officially in- troduced beside the native ones ; Greek artists constructed the palaces and public buildings, and decorated them in the Greek style with sculptures and pictures.