word 'purchase.' {d) To Him is entrusted the eternal welfare of men, symbolized by the ' book of life' (21-^ ; cf. 3*), the history and significance of which may be traced in Is 4», Ex 32^^-, Ps SS^^SO'^ Ezk 139, ]\lal 3i«, Dn 12i, Enoch xlvii. 3, Apoc. Bar. xxiv. 1, Asc. Is. ix. 12, Lk 10-", Ph 4^). (e) Still, as in the earthly life, the redeemed follow Him and He maintains the life which was begun through Him, by keeping them in fellowship with Himself and with God as the source of life (Rev 7" 14'-'*). As the vision unfolds, several startling paradoxes are thrown into the foreground. The Lamb bears the marks of a violent death at the hand of others, yet He is all-powerful (5*^). He gave Himself in the surrender of a perfect love for the sake of sinners, yet He is moved bj- fierce wrath against evil-doers (6^"). The Lamb becomes the great Shepherd of the sheep, whom He guides and they follow Him (T^^J. Hostile forces shall make war against the Lamb, and the Lamb shall overcome them (17"). In the final chapters, the scene shifts and still more strik- ing symbolism appears. The Lamb is pictured as the central figure in a marriage feast — the Bride- groom whose bride is the New Jerusalem ( 19^* ^ 21^), hidden with God until the fullness of time. Again the scene changes to the New Jerusalem, whose foundations are the twelve apostles of the Lamb (21"), whose temple is the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb (v.-^), and whose lamp is the Lamb (v.^). In closing we may summarize the significance of 'Lamb' in the Apocah'pse. The meaning of the person and work of Christ is disclosed in sacrifice. The secret of His nearness to God, of His personal victory and power over others, and the common spirit by which His activity on earth is bound to that in heaven, is found in love. And still further, central in the throne of God, the law of the moral order of the world, the power which moves history to its goal, the all-pervading spirit of the angelic hosts, the principle in which the paradoxes of life are resolved, the magnet which draws heaven down to earth and domiciles it with men, and the light in which all social good is revealed and glorified is sacrificial love. C. A. Beckwith.
LAMP, LAMPSTAND.— Recent excavation in Palestine has greatly increased our knowledge of the types of lamps in use during the various epochs of antiquity. The recently published Memoir, The E.vcavation of Gezer (R. A. S. Macalister, 3 vols., 1912), has multiplied examples, and, together with Excavations in Palestine dimng 189'^-1900 (F. J. Bliss and R. A, S. Macalister, 1902), allows us to trace the development very fully. We may now classify the lamps of the Apostolic Age under the head of 'closed' lamps, with divisions according to shape and ornamenta- tion. It is likely that the most interesting forms lie outside our period (i.e. after A.D. 100) — those that bear Christian inscriptions, and others that show the conventional 'candlestick' pattern. Allowance must be made for the older 'open' type, which here and there persisted. It must also be remembered that Greek influence had to a large extent modified the national types. Roman forms are forthcoming, but they are rare. These remarks apply to lamps of the ordinary material, i.e. clay. Bronze lamps play little part in Palestine, and even terra-cotta forms are un- common. All forms agi'ee in certain general fea- tures, viz. the receptacle for oil, and the orifice for the wick. But there are many peculiarities in regard to shape, the mode of base and of handle, the number or wick-holes, the size of the reservoir opening, the presence of a slit for raising the wick, etc. In the type tliat retains the old saucer form, account must be taken of the numhor of points— ^ one, four, and even seven ('multiple radiating'
LAUDiCEA
LAODICEA
683
lamps) — which implies a corresponding number of wieks. The lamp is for the most part dissociated from its stand. Lampstands, for table and for fioor, and candelabra, with ground base, as appear- ing in classical illustrations pertaining to the 1st cent. A.D., are highly ornate. It cannot be said that Palestine has produced many examples of these, although they were in use, fashioned from materials of wood, stone, and metal. Hanging lamps were also known, as can be judged by the form of the handles. For outdoor purposes the more primitive torch was used, consisting of a handle surmounted by a saucer-shaped protective disc, and having a receptacle for a bundle of Avicks. These were saturated with oil, supplied from a separate vessel. The oil used was chiefly olive.
When we examine the biblical literature of the Apostolic Age we find that the essential words under this head are X^x^os, Xvxvia, Xa/iTrcis, ' lamp,' 'lampstand,' and 'torch,' according to the above description. In spite of our increased knowledge regarding specific forms, we cannot add much towards elucidation of the passages about to be enumerated. The 'lights' of Ac 16^^ (RV) {cpOra, neut. plur. — not 'a light' as in the AV) cannot well be defined. The Xa/A7rd5es (Ac 20^) in the upper chamber might as reasonably be lamps as torches, notwithstanding the term employed (on the reading viroXafiirddes [D] see H. Smith in ExpT xvi. [1904-05] 478, and J. H. Moulton and G. Milligan in Expositor, iv. [1912] 566). In Rev 4' the same word is translated in the RV ' lamps,' and in 8^" ' torch,' which shows the perplexity attaching. R. C. Trench (NT Synonyms^, 1876, p. 159) is of opinion that the invariable rendering in the NT should be 'torches,' Mt 25^ being no exception. The point need not be pressed.