In the NT lawyers appear as vofiiKoi, 'jurists* (freq. in Lk., but elsewhere only in Mt 22^° and Tit 3'^), or vofxodiddaKaXoi, 'doctors of the law' (only in Lk 5", Ac 5^^ and 1 Ti P) ; but they are clearly identical with the ypafjifj.aTeXs, ' scribes, who are mentioned so often in the Gospels and Acts. These lawyers are all of the Jewish type. The Roman lawyer appears, however, in the prfTup or 'orator' TertuUus, who pleaded the cause of St. Paul's prosecutors before the Roman governor Felix (Ac 24'^-) — in order, no doubt, that the proper technicalities might be observed, and the case presented in the way most likely to win over the trained Roman mind. See Tertullus.
Lttbrature. — On Jewish lawyers cf. D. Eaton in HDB iii. 83 ff., with references; and on Roman jurists and orators see A. H. J. Greenidge, Legal Procedure of Cicero's Time, 1901, p. 148 ff. ; H. J. Roby, Roman Pricate Law in the Times of Cicero and of the Antonines, 1902, ii. 407 ff. ; and other authori- ties cited in art. Trial-at-Law. A. R. GORDON.
LAYING ON OP HANDS.— See Ordination.
LEAYEN (from levare, ' to raise ' ; ^vfiri, ^vfiovv ; fermcntum). — Leaven is a substance which produces fermentation, especially in the making of bread. It is properly a piece of already fermented dough, which is mixed with other dough in order to repeat the process. In the warm climate of Syria the fermentation is completed in 24 hours. The com- mandment against the use of raised bread during
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LEVITE
the Passover week (Ex 12" 13'', etc.) was no doubt a survival from Israel's nomadic period, when (as among the nomads of to-day) all bread was un- leavened. Fermentation was supposed to represent the process of corruption in the mass of the bread — an idea found in Plutarch, who says : ' Now leaven is itself the offspring of corruption, and corrupts the mass {to <pijpafia) with which it is mixed' {Quces. Bom. 109). Bread with the taint of putrefaction was regarded as unfit for use in religious ceremonies (see W. R. Smith, RS-, 1894, p. 2-20). On the eve of the first day of the Pass- over— the 14th Nisan — the Jews, in accordance with their immemorial custom, still carefully re- move every trace of leaven which can be found in their houses. Fresh dough kneaded Avith pure water is used in the preparation of the cakes of unleavened bread which are to be eaten during the holy week.
As a figure of speech, ' leaven ' is applied to any element, influence, or agency which effects a subtle and secret change either for the better or for the worse. On the one hand, the Kingdom of Heaven is a leaven which is destined to penetrate, and assimilate to itself, the whole of humanity (Mt 13^, Lk 13-'^^-). On the other, even an apparently insignificant sin, if tolerated and unchecked in a community, has great power of corruption, and St. Paul twice quotes the popular saying, 'A little leaven leavens the whole lump' {bXov to <p6pafia, 1 Co 5*, Gal 5**). The followers of Christ are already unleavened (dfu/toi) ; virtually and ideally — in the purpose of God and in their own passionate desire — they are completely purged from the leaven of iniquity ; but the ideal has still to be realized. They are therefore exhorted to set about and carry through their Passover cleansing of the soul — to rid themselves of all infected and infectious re- mains of their pre-Christian state — that they may keep not a seven-days' but a life-long feast with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth (1 Co 5^'^).
James Strahan.
LEAVES.— See Tree of Life.
LEOPARD (irdpda\Ls).—The Greek word seems to have been used indiscriminately by the classical writers to designate ' leopard,' * panther,' or ' ounce.' The only NT reference to the ' leopard ' is in Kev 13-, where it occurs in the description of ' the Wild Beast from the sea ' — ' the beast which I saw was like unto a leopard.' The concrete reality, of which the Wild Beast was the abstract emblem, was of course the Roman Empire. To the mind of the Seer, the attitude adopted by Rome towards the early Christian Church was that of a leopard. She exhibited the same agility (cf. Hab 1*) and cunning (cf. Hos 13^), as well as the same ruthless cruelty, as that much-dreaded inhabitant of Palestine and the East.
The leopard (Felis pardus, Arab, nimr, Heb. ndmer) is still found round the Dead Sea, in Gilead and Bashan, and also occasionally in Lebanon and the wooded districts of the west ; but, judging from the numerous allusions in the OT and the occur- rence of the word in place-names (e.g. ' Beth- Nimrah ' or ' Nimrah '), it is reasonable to suppose that it was more common in early times. It usually lurks near wells or watering-places (cf. ' waters of Nimrim,' Is 15®, Jer 48'^), and in the outskirts of villages (cf. Jer 5®), to pounce at night upon cattle and dogs. The beautifully spotted skins are often sold in the markets and are used as rugs and saddle-covers, wliile some- times they are worn as an article of clothing.
The Felis pardus is found over the whole of Africa, S. Asia, China, Japan, and the islands of the Malay Arcliipelago.