4. In the philosophical sense.— See art. Free- dom OF THE Will.
Literature.— See works referred to in art. Slavery, and in addition to works quoted in forearoing art., T. G. Tuclcer, Life in the Roman World of Nero and St. Paul, London, 1910 ; H. Wallon, Histoire de I'esclavage dans I'antiquite^, Paris,
1879. J. s. Clemens.
LIBYA [Ai^vT], the country of the Aleves or Lubim). — Libya was the name given by the Greeks to the great undefined region lying to the west of Egypt. It was for a long time equivalent to Africa, a Roman term which did not embrace Egypt till the days of Ptolemy (2nd cent. A.D.). Libya was made known to Greece in the 7th cent. B.C. by the Dorian colon- ists who founded Cyrene. The beautiful and fertile country occupied and developed by them remained independent till it was annexed by the Macedonian conquerors of Egypt in 330 B.C. It finally (in 90 B.C.) came under the power of the Romans, who combined it with Crete to form a single province, Creta-Cyrene. Its original name was revived by Vespasian, who divided Cyrene into Libya Superior and Libya Inferior. This country attracted the Jews at an early period. Philo bears testimony to their difi'usion in his time ' from the Katabath- mos of Libya (d7r6 rod Trpbs AiQviqv Kara j3ad /mod) to the borders of Ethiopia ' {in Flarcum, 6). Jews from 'the parts of Libya about Cyrene' (to. /m^pri TTJs Aij3&r}i TTJs Kara Kvprji'Tji') were in Jerusalem at the time of the first Christian Pentecost (Ac 2^"). St. Luke's designationofCyrenaicaclosely resembles that of Josephus, r/ Trp6s KvpT^vr]v Aij3vii (Ant. XVI. vi. 1), and that of Dio Cassius, Aifivij ij wepi Kvprjvriv (liii. 12). The j)ossession of this fertile region was the bone of contention between the Turks and Italians in 1912 James Strahan.
LICTORS See Serjeants.
LIFE AND DEATH.— 1. Life.— In a consideration of the subject of life as dealt with in the Acts and
Epistles, three Gr. words — /Sios, ^vxVi and ^corj — require to be distinguished.
(1) /3ioj denotes life in the outward and visible sense — its period or course (cf. ' the time past of our life,' 1 P 4^), its means of living (hence in 1 Jn S^'' the RV renders 'goods'), the manner in which it is spent (cf. 'that we may lead a quiet and peace- able life,' 1 Ti 2-), its relation to worldly afiairs (2 Ti 2^) and to the world's love of pomp and show (1 Jn 2'6).
(2) \l/vxv (fr. ^(^xw, 'breathe') originally means the breath of life, and in such an expression as ' his life is in him ' (Ac 20^") would quite adequately be rendered ' breath.' But, as breathing is the sign of the presence in the body of an animating vital force, ^vxv (cf. Lat. anima) comes to mean ' life ' in the sense of the animal soul, and especially the life of the individual as distinguished from other individual lives. This is the life that may be injured or lost through a shipwreck (Ac 27'*'' -^), counted dear or willingly surrendered (20^*, Rev 12^') ; the life which Jesus Christ laid down for His people (1 Jn 3^^), and which they should be prepared to lay down for Him (Ac 15-'') or for one another (Ro 16^ Ph 23", 1 Jn S^"). From meaning the animal soul or life (anima), however, ^vxn comes to be used for the individualized life in its moral and spiritual aspects, the 'soul' in the deeper significance of that word (Lat. animus), the part of man which thinks and feels and wills (Ac 227, Ro 2\ 2 Co P^, etc). See, further, SoUL.
(3) But of the three words for life fw?? for the purposes of the present article is much the most important. Occasionally it is employed in a way that makes it practically equivalent to pios (1 Co 15^", 'If in this life only we have hoped in Christ'; cf. Lk 16'■^^ 'in thy lifetime' \_iv rrj ^uirj o-ov]), and more frequently in connexions not far removed from those of \pvxri in the sense of the vital energy or animal soul (e.g. Ac 17-^, Ja 4"), though even in these cases it is noticeable that ^wrj does not denote, like i/vxv, the life of the indi- vidual, but life in a sense that is general and dis- tributed. Ordinarily, however, fwi) stands for a life which is not existence merely, but existence raised to its highest power ; not a bare life, but ' life more abundantly' (Jn 10'"), a life which St. Paul describes as ' the life Avhich is life indeed ' (17 ovtus f w^, 1 Ti 6'"), a life, i.e., which in its essential nature is full and overflowing, and in its moral and spiritual quality is perfect and complete. In this employment of it, foj^ is very frequently characterized as ' eternal {aiibvios) life ' ; but the epithet does not impart anj' real addition to the connotation of the word as elsewhere used without the adjective, much less restrict its reference to the life after death ; it only expresses more explicitly the conception of that life as something so full and positive that from its very nature it is unconquerable by death, and consequently everlasting. See, further, Eternal, Everlasting.
(a) In the usage of the NT this fw^ or fwrj aidivLos is first of all a Divine attribute — a view of it whicli finds its most complete expression in the Johannine writings. It inheres in God and belongs to His essential nature. ' The Father hath life in himself ' (Jn 5-"), the life eternal is ' with the Father ' (1 Jn 1-). The Father, however, imparts it to the Son, so that He also possesses 'life in himself (Jn 5-"), and possesses it in a manner so copious that this endowment with life is predicated of Him as if it were the most characteristic quality of His being (Jn 1^). Thereafter this life which Christ possesses is communicated by Him to those who are willing to receive it, the record being that God gave unto us the eternal life which is in His Son (1 Jn 5"), and that he tiiat iiath the Son, viz. by believing on His name, hath the life (v.'-^-).