in general, but only of Baal specifically, appears from a similar use of the titles Melkart, Astarte, etc., in oth- er personal appellations [see generally Munter, Re'ig. d. Karthager, 2d ed. Kopenh. 1821]), like Bel among the Babylonians (for the contraction 52, Bal, for 522, Baal, see Gesenius, Monum. Phan. p. 452), and the tu- telary Be'us of Cyprus ("Citium of Bel," Steph. Byz. p. 510). The apostate Israelites worshipped him (in connection with Astarte) in the period of the judges (Judg. ii, 11, 13 ; ill, 7 ; vi, 25 sq.), and the later kings, especially Ahaz (2 Chron. xxviii, 2) and Manasseh (2 Kings xxi, 3) of Judah, and Ahab and Hoshea of Is- rael (1 Kings xvi, 31 sq. ; xviii, 19 sq. ; 2 Kings xvii, 1G sq. ; comp. also Jer. ii, S ; vii, 9 ; xxxii, 29, etc.), with but little interruption (2 Kings iii, 2; x, 28; xi, 18). They had temples to him (1 Kings xvi, 32 ; 2 Kings x, 21 sq.), and altars (Jer. xi, 13) erected espe- cially on eminences and roofs (Jer. xix, 5 ; xxxii, 29), as well as images set up in his honor (2 Kings iii, 2). Respecting the form of his worship we have very few distinct notices. His priests and prophets were very numerous (1 Kings xviii, 22; 2 Kings x, 19 sq.), and divided into various classes (2 Kings x, 19). They ottered incense to this god (Jer. vii, 9; xi, 13; xxxii, 29, etc.), and, clothed in a peculiar costume (2 Kings x, 22), presented to him bloody offerings, including children (Jer. xix, 5). In connection with these, the priests danced (derisively, "leaped," 1 Kings xviii, 2(5) around the altar, and gashed themselves with knives (1 Kings xviii, 28) when they did not speedily gain their suit (Propert. ii, 18, 15 ; Tibull. i, G, 17 sq. ; Lucan. i, 565; Lucian, Dei Syra, 50 [Ling. 1723]; Movers, Phoniz. i, G82). On the adoration (q. v.) by kissing (1 Kings xix, 18), see Kiss. That this Baal worshipped by the Israelites was the same as the wide- ly famed Tyrim Baal, whom the Greeks called Hercu- les, admits of scarcely a doubt (Movers, i, 178 sq.), and thus Baal is identified with Melkart also. The an- cients in general compare Baal with the Greek Zeus or Jove (Sanchoniathon, p. 11, ed. Orelli ; Augustine, (incest, in Jud. 16 ; Dio Cass, lxxviii, 8), as they still more frequently do the Belus of the Babylonians [see Bel], but sometimes identify him with Chronus or Saturn (Ctes ap. Phot. p. 343). Most investigators recognise in him the sun as the fructifying principle of nature (Creuzer, Symbol, ii, 2GG sq. ; comp. Vatke, BUI. Theol. p. 3G6 sq.) ; while Gesenius {Comment, zu Jes. ii, 335, and Thesaur. p. 224) interprets the Babylo- nian Bel and the Phoenician Baal as the principal lucky etar of the Asiatic astrolatry, i. e. the planet Jupiter. The latter view has the following considerations in its favor : (1.) In the sacred writings of the Saltans, the usual title of this planet (in Syriac) is Beil; (2.) A star of good fortune, Gad, was evidently esteemed a deity in Western Asia (comp. Isa. lxv, 11), and from this the city Baal-Gad doubtless had its name ; (3.) In 2 Kings xxiii, 5, Baal (52211) would seem to be distin- guished from the sun as an object of worship ; (4.) On Phoenician coins likewise the sun-god is constantly named distinctively "Lord of Heaven" (E7"2'.2 522), " Lord of Heat" (]*2tl 522), " Lord of the Sun" (O'aia 522). But that Baal originally represented the sun, which with its light and warmth controls and vitalizes all nature, is clearly indicated by Sanchonia- thon (ut sup.) in the statement that the Phoenicians had designated the sun as the "sole lord of heaven, BeeUameii'1 (jiovov ovpavoii icvpiov, WitXaapijv, i. e. ■pO'JB 522; comp. also Augustine, in Jud. 10). The same name (Balsameri) occurs in Plautus (Pan. v, 2, G7). For other reasons for the identification of the Babylo- nian, Syrian, and Phoenician Baal with the solar deity, see Movers, Phon. p. 180 sq., who has extensively in- vestigated (p. 185 sq.) the relations of this divinity to the other ancient Asiatic deification of the powers of nature, some of which appear in the names Tammuz,
Moloch, and Chiun (q. v. severally). Without tracing these out minutely, it is appropriate in this connection to specif}' some of the functions and spheres of activ- ity which Baal, like Zeus among the Greeks, appears to have fulfilled among the Phoenicians, especially in- asmuch as the plural form Baalim is thought by many to be expressive of this multiform development. The following are referred to in the Bible.
1. Baal-Berith (r^"i2 522, Covenant-Baal'), cor- responding to the Zei'Q onictog, Deus Fidius, of the Greek and Roman mythology, lie was worshipped in this capacity in a special temple by the Shechemites (Judg. viii, 33; ix, 4, 4G), among whom Canaanites were also resident (Judg. ix, 28). Bochart (Canaan, xvii, p. 859), whom Creuzer (Symbol, ii, 87) follows, renders the name "Baal of Berytus" (comp. also Steph. Byz. s. v. Bipvrog), like the titles Baal of Sy- rus (-12 522), Baal of Tarsus (Tin 522), found in inscriptions. As the Heb. name of Berytus (q. v.) accords with this title (WHS or "iri12), and a deity of alliance or contracts might well be requisite to the polity of the Phoenicians (in whose territory this city was included), q. d. a guardian of compacts ; the inter- pretation'of Movers (p. 171), with which Bertheau (on Judg. ix, 4) accords, namely "Baal with whom the league is formed" (comp. Gen. xiv, 3; Exod. xxiii, 32 ; xxxiv, 12 sq.), gives a signification not altogeth- er inapposite. See Baal-berith.