memory of its· possessor ever fresh, and confers upon him immortality (Wied. viii; 13; vi; 20). If one argues sadly that the good and the evil hn.ve the sam·e fate ( eh. ix. 2), the other often comforts himself by thinking that their destinies are very different, and that the righteous are at peace, and live for evermore, and their reward is with the Most High (Wied. iii. 2, etc.; v. 15, etc.).· And generally the future judgment which Koheleth inti- mates vagnely and indefinitely, has, in the later book, become a settled belief, and a recognized motive of action and endnrance. Both writings virtually assnme the authorship of Solomon; and many passages of the later work, especially eh. ii., seem to be designed to correct erroneous impressions gathered by some minds from Koheleth's unexplained statements. There is good reason to suppose that certain free-thinkers and sensualists in Alex- andria had ventured to support their immoral opinions by citing the authority of the wise king, who in his book urged men to enjoy life, accord- ing to the maxim, "Let us eat and drink; for to-morrow we die." This misapprehension of inspired teaching the author of Wisdom unhesitatingly condemns and confutes. The passages referred to are noted as they occur in the Exposition. But a comparison of the reasoning of the materialists in Wisdom with the statements in eh. ii. 18-26; iii. 18-22; v. 13, 20, will show whence was derived the perverted view of life which needed correction. Now, the Book of Wisdom was composed not later than B.C. 150; so the limits between which lies the production of Ecclesiastes are B.c. 400 and B.c. 150. The nearer definition mnst be determined by other considerations. Mr. Tyler and Dean Plumptre have traced a connection between Ecclesiastes and Ecclesiasticus, and, by a series of contrasted citations, have endeavoured to prove that Ben-Sira. was well acquainted with our book, and used it largely in the composition of his own. Plumptre also considers that the name Ecclesiasticus was given to Ben-Sira's work from its connection with Ecclesiastes, following the track there set. But be this idea well founded, it will not help us much, as the date of Ecclesiasticus is still a disputed question, though most modern critics assign it to the reign of Energetes II., commonly called Physcon, B.c. 170-117. This, if it is accepted, gives the same result as the previous supposition. But a surer criterion is found in the social and political circumstances revealed incidentally in our book. We read of the arbitrary exercise of power, the corruption, the dissolute- ness and luxury of rulers ( eh. iv. 1, etc. ; vii. 7; x. 16) ; perversion of justice and extortion in provinces (eh. v. 8); the promotion of base and unworthy persons to high positions (eh. x. 5-7); tyranny, despotism, revelry. These doings are graphically depicted by one who knew from experience that of which he wrote. And this condition of affairs points with much cer- tainty to the time when Palestine lay under Persian rule, and irresponsible satraps oppressed their subjects with iron hands. For the same con- clusion makes also the comparison of the inexorable law of death to the cruel obligation of military service which obtained among the Persians, and which allowed of no evasion ( eh. viii. 8); so, too, the allusion to spies INTRODUCTION TO
e.nd the trade of the secret informer ( eh. x. 20) suits the government of the Achmmenidm. The oppressive rule under which the Palestinian& groaned led to a widespread disaffection aud discontent, to e. readiness to seize any occasion to ·revolt, and rendered suitable the caution age.inst hasty action and the exhortation to patience (eh. v:iii, 3, 4). The social and political condition induced two evils-first, a reckless disregard to moral and religious restraint, as though God took no care of men and paid no heed to their welfare; secondly, a scrupnlous attention to the erlernals of religion, as though by this one could constrain Heaven to favour him-the offering of perfunctory sacrifices, the making of vows as a barren duty. This state of things we know to have been existent from the age of Nehemiah and before the Maccabwan period; and many observations of Koheleth are directed against these abuses (eh. v. 1-7). The remark about the multiplication of books ( eh. xii. 12) could not have applied to any period previous to the Persian. The absence of any trace of Greek influence (which we shall endeavour to prove further on) removes the writing from Macedonian times ; nor could it be reasonably attributed to the Maccabrean epoch. There is no trace of the patriotic feeling which animated the Hebrews under the tyranny of. the Syrians, The persecutions then experienced had made future retribution no longer a vague speculation or a dim hope, but an .anchor of patience-a practical motive for constancy and courage. This was a great advance upon the misty conception of Koheleth. The conclusion at which we arrive is that Ecclesiastes was written about B.c. 300. In deciding thns we are not precluded from considering that many of the proverbs and sayings contained herein come from an earlier. age, a.nd may have been popularly attributed to Solomon himself. Such time- hononred sent.ences would be readily inserted in a work of this nature and would favour its reception and currency. The author must be deemed wholly unknown; he has so completely veiled his identity that any attempt to draw him from his purposed obscurity is hopeless. That he wrote in Palestine seems most probable. Some have fancied that the expression (eh. :ri. 1), "Cast thy bread upon the waters," etc., refers to the sowing of seed on the inundated banks of the Nile, and that, therefore, we are justified in considering Alexandria. as the scene of onr author's .labours. But this interpretation of the passage is inadmissible ; the words have nothing to do with Egyptian cultivation, and give no clue to the writer's domicile. Indeed, there a.re allusions to rainy seasons and the dependence of the land for fertility, not on the river, but on the clouds of hea.v-an (eh. xi. 3; xii. 2), which po.intedly debar- any .notion of Egypt being intended, and plainly indicate another country subject to very different climatic influences. The peculiarities of the Palestinian weather are characterized in eh. xi. 4, "He that observeth the wind shall not sow; and he that regardeth the clouds shall not reap." Such warnings would have no significance in a land where rain rarely ever fell, and no one ever con• ECCLESIASTES; OR, THE PREACHER. xv