§ 91. THE SACEAMENTS IN GENEIiAL. 473
anointing oil, or confirmation ; (4.) the consecration of j^riests ; (5.) the consecration of monks ; (6.) the consecration of the dead, or extreme unction. Here marriage and penance are wanting ; in place of them appears the consecration of monks, which however was afterwards excluded from the number of the sacraments.
In the JSTorth African, the Milanese, and the Gallican churches the washing of feet also long maintained the place of a distinct sacrament.' Ambrose asserted its sacramental character against the church of E-ome, and even declared it to be as necessary as baptism, because it was instituted by Christ, and delivered men from original sin, as baptism from the actual sin of transgression ; — a view which rightly found but little acceptance.
This uncertainty as to the number of the sacraments continued till the twelfth century.' Yet the usage of the churcli from the fifth century downward, in the East and in the West, appears to have inclined silently to the number seven, which was commended by its mystical sacredness. This is shown at least by the agreement of the Greek and Roman churches in this point, and even of the ISTestorians and Monophysites, who split off in the fifth century from the orthodox Greek church.'
In the West, the number seven was first introduced, as is usually supposed, by the bishop Otto of Bamberg (1124), more correctly by Peter Lombard (11164), the " Master of Sentences ;"
' According to the testimony of cxOibfose, Augustine, and the Missale Gallicum retus. Comp. Hahn, I. c. p. 84 f.
^ Beda Venerabilis (f 735), Ratramnus m Corbie (f 868), Ratherius of Verona (f 974), in enumerating the sacraments, name only baptism and the Lord's Supper ; and even Alexander of Hales (f 1245) expressly says (Simima P. iv. Qu. 8, Membr. 2, art. 1): "Christus duo sacramenta instituit per se ipsum, sacrameneoih baptism! et sacramentum eucharistiae." Damiani (f 1072), on the other hand, i lentiona twelve sacraments, viz., baptism, confirmation, anointing of the sick, consecrauon of bishops, consecration of kings, consecration of churches, penance, consecration of canons, monks, hermits, and nuns, and marriage. 0pp. tom. ii. 872 (ed. C. Cajet.). Bernard of Clairvaux (f 1151) names ten sacraments. Confinnation was usuaUj reckoned among the sacraments. Comp. Hahn, 1. c. 88 ff.
' No plain trace, however, of such a definite number appears in the earliest monuments of the faith of these Oriental sects, or even in the orthodox theologian «»ohn Damascnua.
480 THIKD PEKIOD. A.D. 311-590.
rationally and rhetorically justified by Thomas Aquinas and other scholastics (as recently by Mohler) from the seven chief religious wants of human life and human society ; ' and finally publicly sanctioned by the council of Florence in 1439 with the concurrence of the Greek church, and established by the council of Trent with an anathema against all who think otherwise.' The Keformation returned, in this point as in others, to the New Testament ; retained none but baptism and the Lord' p Supper as proper sacraments, instituted and enjoined by Christ himself; entirely rejected extreme unction (and at first confirmation); consigned penance to the province of the inward life, and confirmation, marriage, and orders to the more general province of sacred acts and usages, to which a more or less sacramental character may be ascribed, but by no means an equality in other respects with baptism and the holy Supper.'
§ 92. Ba^yt'tsm.
For the Literature, see vol. i. § 54 ; ii. | 70 ; especially Hofling (Lutheran) : Das Sacrament der Taufe. W. Wall (Anglican) : The History of Infant Baptism (1705), new ed. Oxf. 1844, 4 vols. C. A. G. v. ZEZscHwrrz : System der christlich kirchlichen Katechetik. Vol. i. Leipz. 1863.
On heretical baptism in particular, see Mattes (R. C.) : Ueber die
' Usually: Birth = baptism ; growth = confirmation ; nourishment = the Supper ; healing of sickness = penance ; perfect restoration — extreme unction ; propagation of society = marriage ; government of society = orders. Others compare the sacraments with the four cardhial natural virtues : prudence, courage, justice, and tern, perance, and the three theological virtues: faith, love, and hope; but vary in theii assignments of the several sacraments to the several virtues respectively. All these comparisons are, of course, more or less arbitrary and fanciful.
* The Council of Trent pronounces the anathema upon all who deny the numbef of seven sacraments and its institution by Christ, Sess. vii. de sacr. can. 1 : "Si quia dixerit, sacramenta nova; legis non fuisse omnia a Christo instituta, aut esse plura vel pauciora quam septem, anathema sit." In default of a historical proof of the seven sacraments from the writings of the church fathers, Roman divines, like Brenner and Perronc, find themselves compelled to resort to the dkctplina arcani ; but this related only to the celebration of the sacraments, and disappeared in the fourth century upon the universal adoption of Christianity. Comp. also the treatise of G- L. Ilahn : DoctriniE Roraana; de numero sacramentario septenarlo rationcs historica Vratisl. 1859.
' A more partictilar discussion of the difl'ercuces between the Roman and thi- Protestant doctrines of the sacraments belongs to symbolics and polemics.