§97. THE SEVEN SACKAMENTS. 437
Greek mystery (of which it is the translation in the Vulgate), was long used in a loose and indefinite way for sacred and mys terious doctrines and rites, llabauus Maurus and Paschasius liadbertus count four sacraments, Diouysius Areopagita, six ; Damiani, as many as twelve. By the authority chiefly of Peter the Lombard and Thomas Aquinas the sacred number seven was at last determined upon, and justified by various analogies with the number of virtues, and the number of sins, and the neces sities of human life.1
But seven sacraments existed as sacred rites long before the church was agreed on the number. We find them with only slight variations independently among the Greeks under the name of " mysteries " as well as among the Latins. They are, besides baptism and the eucharist (wliich is a sacrifice as well as a sac rament) : confirmation, penance (confession and absolution), marriage, ordination, and extreme unction.
Confirmation was closely connected with baptism as a sort of supplement. It assumed a more independent character in the case of baptized infants and took place later. It may be per formed in the Greek church by any priest, in the Latin only by the bishop.2
Penance was deemed necessary for sins after baptism.3
Ordination is the sacrament of the hierarchy and indispensable for the government of the church.
1 Otto, bishop of Bamberg (between 1139 and 1189), is usually reported to have introduced the seven sacraments among the Pomeranians whom he had converted to Christianity, but the discourse on which this tradition rests is of doubtful genuineness. The scholastic number seven was confirmed by the Council of Florence (the Greek delegates assenting), and by the Council of Trent which anathematizes all who teach more or less, Sess. VII. can. I. The Protestant churches admit only two sacraments, baptism and the Lord's Supper, because these alone are especially commanded by Christ to be observed. Yet ordination and marriage, and in some churches confirmation also, are retained as solemn religious ceremonies.
2 The Lutheran church retains confirmation by the minister, the Anglican church by the bishop.
3 See above, \ 87, p. 381 sqq.
438 FOURTH PEKIOD. A. D. 590-1049.
Marriage lies at the basis of the family and society in church and state, and was most closely and jealously guarded by the church against facility of divorce, against mixed marriages, and marriages between near relatives.
Extreme unction with prayer (first mentioned among the sacraments by a synod of Pavia in 850, and by Damiani) was the viaticum for the departure into the other world, and based on the direction of St. James 5: 14, 15 (comp. Mark 6: 13; 16: 18). At first it was applied in every sickness, by layman as well as priest, as a medical cure and as a substitute for amulets and forms of incantation ; but the Latin church afterwards confined it to cases of extreme danger.
The efficacy of the sacrament was defined by the scholastic term ex opere operato, that is, the sacrament has its intended effect by virtue of its institution and inherent power, inde pendently of the moral character of the priest and of the reci pient, provided only that it be performed in the prescribed manner and with the proper intention and provided that the recipient throw no obstacle in the way.1
Three of the sacraments, namely baptism, confirmation, and ordination, have in addition the effect of conferring an indelible character.2 Once baptized always baptized, though the benefit may be forfeited for ever; once ordained always ordained, though a priest may be deposed and excommunicated.
1 Here, too, the Protestant (at least the Reformed) confessions differ from the Roman CathoJic by requiring faith in active exercise as a condition of re ceiving the benefit of the sacrament. In the case of infant baptism the faith of the parents or responsible guardians is taken into account. Without such faith the sacrament would be wasted and profaned.
2 Character inddebilis.