554 THE MIDDLE AGES. A.D. 1049-1204.
Universities of Palencia, 1212, Salamanca, 1230, and Seville, 1254, were established by the kings of Castile. Prague, 1347, was founded by a double charter from the pope and Charles IV. Some universities had their origin in disaffec tion prevailing in universities already established : Padua started in a defection of students from Bologna; Cambridge, in 1209, in a defection of students from Oxford, and Leipzig, in 1409, grew out of the dissatisfaction of the German " nation " with its treatment at Prague. Heidelberg is the earliest institution of papal creation which went over to the Reformation.1
Organization. — A university originally signified not a body of studies or a place where studies were prosecuted, but an aggregation of teachers and students — universitas macjistrorum et scholarium. The term " university " was used of any group of persons and was a common expression for uyour body" or " all of you " — universitas vestra? In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries it was frequently applied to guilds. The literary guild, or university, denoted the group of persons carrying on studies. The equivalent in the Mid dle Ages for the term " university," as we use it, was studium and studium generate, "study" or "general study." Thus the University of Bologna was called studium Bononie or Bononieme, — as it is still called studio Bolognese in Italy, — Paris, studium JParisiense, Oxford, studium Oxoniense. The addition " general " had reference to students, not to a vari ety of branches of knowledge, and denoted that the studium
1 According to Denifle, after the middle of the thirteenth century, no uni versity came into existence without a papal bull. I. 777. But Kaufmann disputes this view and, as it would seem, with reason. See Laurie, p. 137; Rashdall, I. 13. The mediaeval custom of giving a university legal existence by a papal bull was renewed for the United States when Leo XIII. chartered the University of Washington City, 1888.
2 Innocent III., 1205, addressed the professors of Paris in this way, universitatem vestram rogamus, Chart., I. 63. In this letter Innocent also addresses the corporation as universis magistris et scholaribus. So also Gregory IX., 1251, Alex. IV., 1256, etc., Chart., I. 136, 342, but the expression " university of masters and scholars," universitas magistrorum et scholarium, seems to have been used first in 1221. Chart., I. ix, 98, 99.
§ 90. THE UNIVERSITIES. 555
was open to students from every quarter.1 By the fifteenth century the term " university " had come to have its present meaning. The designation of a seat of learning as alma or alma mater dates from the thirteenth century.
A full university requires at least four faculties, the arts — now known at the German universities as the faculty of philosophy, — law, medicine, and theology. This idea was not embodied in the earliest foundations and some of the universities remained incomplete during their entire exist ence. Salerno was a medical school. Bologna was for more than a century only a school of law. Salamanca, the most venerable of existing Spanish educational institutions, did not have a faculty of theology till the end of the four teenth century.2 Paris, which began as a seat of theological culture, had no formal provision for the study of civil law till the seventeenth century, although civil law was taught there before 1219. 3 Nearly one half of the universities did not include theology in the list of studies. The Italian universi ties were, almost without an exception, at first confined to the study of jurisprudence and medicine. The reason for this may have been a purpose not to come into collision with the episcopal and conventual schools, which existed for the train ing of priests. The faculty of the arts, the lowest of the faculties, included the seven studies covered by the trivium and qiiadrivium, but was at a later period expanded so as to include metaphysical, linguistic, historic, and other studies not covered by the study of law, medicine, and theology. Theology was known as the highest and master study. Alexander IV., writing to Paris, 1256, said that theology ruled over the other studies like a mistress, and they fol lowed her as servants.4
1 Rashdall, I. 8, a "general study" might be founded for each separate faculty as the studium generate in theologica facilitate. Denifle, I. 5.
2 The term " faculty " at first seems to have been synonymous with "science," or branch of knowledge. Thus Frederick II., in chartering the University of Naples, spoke of those who teach the science of surgery, chirurgice facultatem instruunt.
3 Honorius III., 1219, forbade the teaching of civil law in Paris. Chart., I. p. xxviii, 92. * Prceest reliquis sicut superior, etc., Chart., I. 343.