THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
(d. 1662) and the unexampled richness of apologetical labor in its later years culminated in Butler's great Analogy (1736) and Paley's plain but powerful argumentation. As the assault against Christianity shifted its basis from the English deism of the early half of the eighteenth century through the German rationalism of its later half, the idealism which dominated the first half of the nineteenth century, and thence to the materialism of its later years, period after period was marked in the history of apology, and the particular elements of apologetics which were especially cultivated changed with the changing thought. But no epoch was marked in the history of apologetics itself, until under the guidance of Schleiermacher's attempt to trace the organism of the departments of theology, K. H. Sack essayed to set forth a scientifically organized " Christian Apologetics " (Hamburg, 1829; 2d ed., 1841). Since then an unbroken series of scientific systems of apologetics has flowed from the press. These differ from one another in almost every conceivable way; in their conception of the nature, task, compass, and encyclopedic place of the science ; in their methods of dealing with its material ; in their conception of Christianity itself; and of religion and of God and of the nature of the evidence on which belief in one or the other must rest. But they agree in the fundamental point that apologetics is conceived by all alike as a special department of theological science, capable of and demanding separate treatment. In this sense apologetics has come at last, in the last two-thirds of the nineteenth century, to its rights. The significant names in its development are such as, perhaps, among the Germans, Sack, Steudel, Delitzsch, Ebrard, Baumstark, Tolle, Kratz, Kiibel, Steude, Franck, Kaftan, Vogel, Schultz, Kahler; to whom may be added such Romanists as Drey, Dieringer, Staudenmeyer, Hettinger, Schanz, and such English-speaking writers as Hetherington, H. B. Smith, Bruce, Rishell, and Beattie.
Benjamin B. Warfield.
Bibliography: Lists of literature will be found in F. R. Beattie's Apologetics, Richmond, 1903; in A. Cave, Introduction to Theology, Edinburgh, 1896; in G. R. Crooks and J. F. Hurst, Theological Encyclopedia and Theology, pp. 434-437, New York, 1894; in P. Schaff, Theological Propaedeutic, ib. 1893. Consult F. L. Patton, in Princeton Theological Review, ii. 110 sqq.; Presbyterian and Reformed Review, vii. (1896), pp. 243 sqq. On the history of apologetics and apologetic method: H. E. Tzschirmer, Geschichte der Apologetik, Leipsic, 1805; G. H. van Senden, Geschichte der Apologetik, 2 vols., Stuttgart, 1846; K. Werner, Geschichte der apologetischen und polemischen Literatur, 5 vols., Schaffhausen, 1861-67 (Roman Catholic); W Haan, Geschichte der Vertheidigung des Christentums, Frankenberg, 1882 (popular). For early Christian apologies consult ANF and NPNF, Am. ed., New York, 1884-1900; for discussions of these, F. Watson, The Ante-Nicene Apologies, their Character and Value, Cambridge, 1870 (Hulsean essay); W. J. Bolton, Evidences of Christianity as exhibited in the . Apologists down to Augustine, London, 1853; F. R. Wynne, The Literature of the Second Century, London, 1891 (popular but scholarly); A. Seitz, Apologie des Christentums bei den Griechen des IV. und V. Jahrhunderten, Wiirzburg, 1895. On special phases in the history of apologetics: L. Noack, Die Freidenker in der Religion, oder die Reprasentanten der religibsen Aufklarung in England, Frankreich und Deutschland, 3 vols., Bern, 1853-55; A. S. Farrar, Critical History of Free Thought, London, 1863; C. R. Hagenbach, German Rationalism in its Rise, Prog-
ress, and Decline, Edinburgh, 1865; A. Viguie\ Histoire de I'apologetique dans I'eglise reformee francaise, Geneva, 1858; H. B. Smith, Apologetics, New York, 1882 (appendix contains sketches of German apologetic works); J.
F. Hurst, History of Rationalism, ib. 1902; A. H. Huizinga, Some Recent Phases of Evidences of Christianity, in Presbyterian and Reformed Review, vii. (1896) 34 sqq. Apologetical literature: F. R. Beattie, Apologetics, or the Rational Vindication of Christianity, i., Richmond, 1903 (to be completed in 3 vols.); W. M. Hetherington, Apologetics of the Christian Faith, Edinburgh, 1867; J. H. A. Ebrard, Apologetik, Gutersloh, 1880 (Eng. transl., Apologetics, or the Scientific Vindication of Christianity, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1886-87); A. Mair, Studies in the Christian Evidences, Edinburgh, 1883;
G. F. Wright, Logic of Christian Evidences, Andover, 1884; F. H. R. Frank, System der christlichen Gewissheit, Erlangen, 1884, Eng. transl., Christian Certainty, Edinburgh, 1886; P. Schanz, Apologie des Christentums, 3 vols., Freiburg, 1887-88, Eng. transl., Christian Apology, New York, 1894 (Roman Catholic); L. F. Stearns, The Evidence of Christian Experience, New York, 1891 (the best book on the subject); A. B. Bruce, Apologetics, or Christianity defensively stated, Edinburgh, 1892; H. Wace, Students' Manual of the Evidences of Christianity, London, 1892; J. Kaftan, Wahrheit der christlichen Religion, Bielefeld, 1888, Eng. transl., 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1894; C. W. Rishell, Foundations of the Christian Faith, New York, 1899; W. Devivier, Cours d'apologetique chretienne, Paris, 1889, Eng. transl., Christian apologetics, 2 vols., New York, 1903; A. Harnack, What is Christianity ? London, 1901; J. T. Bergen, Evidences of Christianity, Holland, Mich., 1902; A. M. Randolph, Reason, Faith, and Authority in Christianity, New York, 1903; the Boyle and Bampton lecture series deal exclusively with subjects in apologetics; see also under Agnosticism; Antitrinitarianism, and Atheism.
APORTANUS, ap"or-ta'nrjs, GEORG (Jurien, or Jiirjen, van der Dare, Daere, or Dure): Early follower of Luther in East Friesland; b. at Zwolle; d. in the autumn of 1530. He was brought up in Zwolle by the Brethren of the Common Life, and became teacher in their school. In 1518 Count Edzard of East Friesland called him to Emden to educate his sons. With the support of the count, he began to preach Luther's doctrines at Norden in 1519, was excluded from the pulpit in consequence, and then preached in the open air till the importunity of the people brought him back as chief pastor. In 1529 he held a disputation at Oldersum, presided over by the influential Ulrich of Dornum, and induced many to adopt Luther's teachings. L. Schulzb.
APOSTASY (Gk. Apostasia, "Revolt "): According to the teaching of the earlier ages, apostasy might be either apostasia perfidia, inobedientioe, or irregularitatis (i.e., revolt agains the faith, authority, or the rules). The two latter classes often ran into each other, and have been reduced by later theologians to two distinct though still related kinds of desertion, namely, apostasia a monachatu and a clericatu, which of course occur only in non- Protestant churches, while the apostasia a fide or perfidies is contemplated in Protestant church law also. Apostasia a monachatu, the abandonment of the monastic life, takes place when a member of a religious order leaves it and returns to the world, whether as a cleric or as a layman, without permission of the proper authority. Apostasia a clericatu, the abandonment of orders, is in like manner the unauthorized return to the world of a person in holy orders; the minor orders which require no irrevocable self-dedication do not come under the same head. As early as the Council of