RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Beg-hards Bel
eeat is left at the head of the table for the absent master, and passages from the " Hidden Words " are read as the food is passed.
Behaist congregations are known as " assemblies." The first in America was established in Chicago by a Syrian, Ibrahim Kheirallah, in 1894. There are now thirty-five in America, each independent of the others and owning no authority but that of ADdul i3eha. It is claimed mat the mission of Behaism is to unify the world and bring all religions into one.1 Margaret B. Peeke.
Bibliography: Consult the literature given under Babism; E. D. Ross, Babism, in Great Reliqions of the World, London, 1901; Mirza Husain Ali, Le Livre de la certitude traduit . par H. Dreyfus, Paris, 1904; Le Beyan arabe, le livre sacre du Babysme, transl. by A. Nicolas, Pans, 1905; Beha TJUah, Les Preceptes du Behaisme: les ornements — les paroles du paradis, les splendeurs, les revelations, tran3l. by H. Dreyfus and TJ. Chirazi, Paris, 1906.
BEHMEN, JACOB. See Boehme. BEIRUT. See Phenicia, I, § 6. BEISSEL, JOHN CONRAD. See Communism, II, 5; Dunkers, I, 2.
BEISSEL, STEPHAN: German Jesuit; b. at Aachen Apr. 21, 1841. He was educated at the universities of Bonn and Miinster and at the seminary at Cologne. He was ordained to the priesthood in 1871 and lived two years in France, three in England, fifteen in Holland, and four in Luxemburg, passing the remainder of his time at Aachen and Cologne. He has written Baugeschichte der Kirche des heiligen Viktor zu Xanten (Freiburg, 1883); Geldwert und Arbeitslohn im Mittelalter (1884); Verehrung der Heiligen in Deutschland bis zum Beginn des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts (1885); Bilder der Handschrift des Kaisers Otto im Miinster zu Aachen (Aachen, 1886); Geschichte der Ausstattung der Kirche des heiligen Viktor zu Xanten (Freiburg, 1887); Geschichte der trierschen Kirchen und ihrer Reliquien (2 parts, Treves, 1889); Evangelienbuch des heiligen Bernward von Hildesheim (Hildesheim, 1891); Verehrung der Heiligen und ihrer Reliquien in Deutschland wahrend der zweiten Halfte des Mittelalter s (Freiburg, 1893); Vatikanische Miniaturen (1893); Der heilige Bernward von Hildesheim als Kunstler (Hildesheim, 1895); Fra Giovanni Angelica da Fiesole, sein Leben und seine Werke (Freiburg, 1895); Die Verehrung Unserer Lieben Frau in Deutschland wahrend des Mittelalters (1895); Bilder aus der Geschichte der altchristlichen Kunst und Liturgie in Italien (1899); Das Leben Jesu Christi, geschildert auf den Flugeln des Hochallars zu Kalkar (in collaboration with J. Joest, Gladbach, 1900); Das Evangelienbuch Heinrichs HI und die Dome zu Goslar in der Bibliothek zu Upsala (Dusseldorf, 1900); Die Aachenfahrt (1902); Betrachtungspunkte fur alle Tage des Kirchenjahres (10 vols., 1904-05); and Geschichte der Evangelienbucher in der ersten Halfte des Mittelalters (Freiburg, 1906); in addition to two volumes of the Zur Kenntnis und Wiirdigung der mittelalterlichen Altare Deutschlands (Frankfort, 1895-1905) begun by E. F. A. Munzenberger.
' Requests for literature may be addressed to Mr. John Mason Remey, Corcoran Building, Washington, D. C.
BEKKER, BALTHASAR: Dutch precursor of rationalism; b. at Metslawier (4 m. n.e. of Dokkum) Mar. 30, 1634; d. in Friesland June 11, 1698. He studied at Groningen under J. Alting and in Franeker, where he was rector of the Latin school, was made doctor of theology, and preacher in 1666. Being an enthusiastic follower of the Cartesian philosophy, he published at Wesel in 1668 an Admonitio sincera et Candida de philosophia Cartesiana, and gave greater offense by his catechisms in 1668 and 1670. He was accused of Socinianism, although Alting and other theologians pronounced him to be orthodox. After many controversies, he accepted a call as preacher to Weesp, and, in 1679, to Amsterdam. The appearance of a large comet in 1680 induced him to issue a work against popular superstition, which stirred up more commotion; and, in 1691, in De betoverde Wereld, published at Leeuwarden, he denied the existence of sorcery, magic, possessions by the devil, and of the devil himself. The consistory of Amsterdam instituted a formal process against him, and he was deposed July 30, 1692. He went to Friesland, where he edited the last two books of his work.
H. C. RoGGEf.
Bibliography: A complete list of Bekker's writings and. of the opposing works called out is given in A. van del Linden, B. Bekker, Bibliographie, The Hague, 1869. For his life consult J. G. Walch, Einleitung in die Religionsstreitigkeiten ausserhalb der lutherischen Kirche, vol. iii, part 3, 499 sqq., Jena, 1734; M. Schwager, Beitrag zur Geschichteder Intoleranz, oder Leben, . . B. Bekkers, mit einer Vorrede Semlers, Leipsic, 1780; J. M. Schrockh, Kirchenge— schichte seit der Reformation, viii, 713-722, ib. 1808; D. Lorgion, B. Bekker in Franeker, The Hague, 1848; idem,
B. Bekker in Amsterdam, 2 vols., Groningen, 1850; W. P.
C. Knuttel, Balthasar Bekker, The Hague, 1906.
BEKKOS, JOHANNES. See Johannes (John) Bekkos.
BEL : A great Babylonian god, whose name, like the equivalent Hebrew Ba'al, originally and all through the history of the language was also used in the sense of " lord " or " owner " (see Baal). The usage of the two words as names of deities also ran through parallel courses; for Bel at one time in Babylonia was a local deity like each of the Baals of the Canaanites. He was the patron deity of the city of Nippur in central Babylonia (the modern Nuffar), where his temple, of great antiquity, has been unearthed by the Pennsylvania expedition. The reason why there were not many Bels in Babylonia was that political union on a large scale was very early effected in that country, while it was always impossible among the Canaanites; and Nippur was the center of an extensive community in very remote times.
When, under priestly influence, Babylonian theology was systematized, to this great god Bel was assigned sovereignty of the earth, while Anu ruled in the highest heaven, and Ea over the deep. These formed the chief trinity with primary and universal dominion.
But it is not the Bel of Nippur whose name appears in the Bible and Apocrypha. On account of the rise and supremacy of the city of Babylon under Hammurabi (2250 B.C.), Marduk (Merodach), the god of that city, was invested with the prerogatives
Bel Bellamy