THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
in a place given them at the Lateran by Pope Pelagius. The mission of Augustine to the Anglo- Saxons from the monastery of St. Andrew in 596 (see Anglo-Saxons, Conversion of the) opened a new field to the order. The Latin rules of the Spanish bishops Isidore of Seville (d. 636) and Fructuosus of Bragara show distinct traces of an acquaintance with that of Benedict. But more important was its introduction into the Frankish kingdom in the first half of the seventh century, since the attempt was there made to submit to it the entire monastic body. However it was introduced, it soon become predominant, and took the place of the rules of Columban and Csesarius. At a Burgundian synod of 670 it was designated, with the canons, as the only standard for monasteries; and similarly in the synods held under the auspices of Carloman and Boniface in 742 and 743 it is called the norm for convents both of monks and of nuns. The language of the capitularies of 811, implying that only obscure traces of the prior existence of other rules remained, shows how completely it had occupied the field by the time of Charlemagne.
In spite, however, of this supremacy, and of the glory reflected on the order by such men as Aidhelm and Bede, Alcuin and Paulus Diaconus, an acute observer could already perceive traces of decay. In some places the abbots abused the power given them by the rule; in others laxity had begun
to creep in. There was thus room for
2. Period the reforming activity of Benedict of
of Decline. Aniane (q.v.), who attempted not
only to restore the pristine strictness, but to supplement the rule by special ordinances for the purpose of securing uniformity in the daily life of the Frankish monasteries. His success, powerfully seconded as he was by the emperor Louis the Pious, was not lasting. The ninth century saw a considerable number of new foundations, especially in Saxony, and the literary activity promoted by Charlemagne continued; but there were many complaints not only of the giving of monasteries to laymen but of decay in morality and strict monastic discipline. In addition to these things, grievous havoc was wrought in many different quarters by the irruptions of the barbarians— in England by the Danes, in northern Germany and France by the Normans, in the south of Germany and the north of Italy by the Huns, and on the Mediterranean coast by the Saracens.
(Otto Seebass.) IV. The History of the Order since the Ninth Century : The palmy days of the order, from Benedict of Aniane to Innocent III (821-1200) may be designated as the time of ecumenical activity. The family of monks which proceeded from Monte Cassino controlled with its influence the civilization of the entire Christian West. The Basilian monasteries of South Italy and Sicily, as well as the monks and hermits of the Celtic Church in the British isles, were able only for a time to maintain the independence of their institutions. Patronized and at the same time monopolized by Rome, the Benedictine monastic character made itself the standard of monasticism throughout Latin Christen-
dom. True, from the ninth century on there were marked departures from the founder's ideal, in consequence of which, even after the reform by Benedict of Aniane (q.v.), a number of similar efforts at reform became necessary; but the call to return to the original vigor of the rule ever proved its purifying power, and the total influence of the order was rather enhanced than 1. 821- decreased by the growing number of 1200. Ecu- tnege reform congregations. The most AcM °t important of them after the tenth New Conl century was the reform of Cluny (from greg-ations. 910), with which were gradually blended more or less the smaller reforms of a like tendency originating almost simultaneously in Flanders under Gerard of Brogne (d. 959), in Lorraine under John of Gorze (d. 974), in England under Dunstan of Glastonbury (d. 988), from the monastery of St. Benignus at Dijon (c. 990) under William of Volpiano (d. 1031) and in southern Italy by Alferius of Cava (d. 1050) (see Cluny, Abbey and Congregation of; John of Gorze; Gerard, Saint, 1; Dunstan). More independent of the Benedictine institutions, though proceeding from the order, were some reforming movements of the eleventh century. Among these were the famous congregation of Hirschau (q.v.), c. 1060, which was distinguished by the rigor of its discipline; that of Vallombrosa (see Gualberto, Giovanni), 1038, which, like Hirschau, developed with especial care the institution of lay brothers (Jratres conversi), thus setting an important example for later orders (see Monasticism); those of Camaldoli, 1000; Grammont, 1076; Fontevraud, c. 1100; (see Camaldolites ; Grammont, Order of ; Fontevraud, Order of) ; and finally that of Citeaux, 1098. The last of these reforms, the ripest and noblest fruit of the older Benedictine ideal, grew so rapidly, and, especially under the influence of St. Bernard, showed such power in the field of missionary and civilizing effort that it was obliged to leave the Benedictine family and form, not a new congregation but a new order, in spite of its adherence to the fundamental form of monastic discipline as delineated in the Regula Benedicti (see Cistercians). By this separation of the youngest daughter from the mother, the latter ceased to be regarded as the only normal type for western monasticism. The ecumenical period of Benedictine history ends with the last decades of the twelfth century. It must thenceforth be traced as the history of one order among several in the life of western civilization.
The period from Innocent III to the Council
of Trent (1200-1563) is a time of increasing inner
decay and of futile efforts at reform. The first
attempt to restore discipline in the monasteries
of the order, which had become very
ifwi^1?)00- worldly; was made in 1215 by the " ??av Fourth Lateran Council under Innotempts at cent ^' ^ ordered that every three Reform. years a general chapter should be held, and that the visitatiors prescribed by this chapter should be made by Cistercian abbots. Under this regulation the archbishops <tf Canterbury and York introduced the triennial