Chapter
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
eleventh and the twelfth centuries the former secular canons were in many localities replaced by reguhir canons, living under a stricter rule, especially that known as of Saint Augustine, though it is not his composition, but a collection of excerpts from mainly pseudo-Augustinian sermons. These Augustinian canons, in their turn, were not seldom replaced from the twelfth century on by Premonstratensians. But the ascetic tendency was not strong or enduring enough to reform all the chapters. The independence given by the possession of property prevented their reconstruction on the original model; and the worldliness of the higher clergy made such regulation oppressive, so that the institution once more fell into decay in the thirteenth century.
The functions of the presbyterium as the bishop's council were assumed, during the period of the prevalence of the vita canonica, not by the whole body of the clergy living in community, but by those of the higher orders; and, on the other hand, room was foimd for the cooperation (in important matters affecting the diocese) of the clergy of the other churches in the see city besides the cathedral, and for representatives of the lay population of the city. The actual current administration was indeed conducted by the cathedral chapter; but when the distribution of revenues above alluded to made a division between the interests of the bishop and those of the chapter, the former was very apt to neglect to consult the latter, or to rely, for support in his measures, on the other clergy and prominent laity. The Decretals of Gregory IX. enforced the right of the chapter to a consultative voice; and it was finally established as common law that the chapter was the only body with an independent right to advise the bishop in the conduct of diocesan affairs. From the beginning of the thirteenth century the chapters succeeded in excluding the other clergy and the lay nobility from any voice in the election of bishops.
A full or capitular canon was one who had a vote in the chapter, a stall in the choir, and commonly, though not necessarily, a prebend, i.e., a fixed income derived either from a share of the community revenues or from certain specially assigned property, tithes, etc. In contrast with the full rights of the canonici seniores, who were in major orders, was the position of the juniores — clerks in minor orders or youths re- 3. Canons, ceiving education in the capitular school, who had no voice in the chapter. The mmiber of both classes was limited only by the amount of the community property. Later, especially in Germany from the thirteenth century, the number of canonries and prebends was limited in many chapters, at first for various economic reasons and then for the purpose of assuring a richer livelihood to their members. The custom still, however, prevailed of receiving youths to be trained for canonries. A special fund was set aside for their support, and they were bound on their side to the vita communis. They were known as juniores canonici nan capitulares, domicelli, domicellares. In ctiapters with fixed numbers canonici supranu7nerarii were those waiting for a prebend
to be vacated The Lateran Council of 1179 had indeed forbidden the conferring of Expectancies (q.v.); but under the lax papal interpretation of the application ot this prohibition to capitular positions, and the definite concession of four expectancies to each chapter by Alexander IV. (1254), the practise continued, and admission among the domicellares was regularly the title to a full canonry in order of seniority.
Qualifications for admission had long been fixed by the chapters themselves before the common law took cognizance of the question. The Clementina required the possession of holy orders, and the Council of Trent decreed that half the canonries should be given to doctors, masters, or licentiates in theology or canon law, and that in cathedral chapters half should be held by priests. The older statutes of the chapters themselves required (besides the possession of a " title ") that the candidate should have received at least the tonsure, and be free from notable bodily defects, and of unblemished honor, of legitimate, and sometimes of noble, birth; fourteen years commonly, sometimes less, was the minimum of age. While all canons were theoretically equal, there were offices among them to which special functions were attached. Such were the prwbendce doctorates for those holding doctor's degrees, others destined to provide support for university professors, prcebendce parochiales connected with a parochial cure, prcebendce presbyterales for those in priest's orders who performed the requisite sacerdotal functions when the majority of the canons were deacons or subdeacons, prcebendce exemptce or liberce to which the obligation of residence was not attached, and prcebendce regice, either those to which sovereigns had the right of presentation from having founded them, or which were held by the sovereigns themselves as honorary canons. Besides the canons, who were frequently hindered by political position or disinclination from performing their spiritual functions, there were often a number of vicarii, mansionarii, or capellani, who had charge of the services and represented the canons in them.
The organization of chapters in modern times is usually a simpler one, especially owing to their loss of political importance in modern states. They usually consist of a number of capitulares or numerarii, who enter upon their rights as soon as they are nominated; the canonici exspectantes, juniores, and domicellares have almost ceased to exist. The requirements are: priestly or (in some cases) any major orders; the age of thirty in some places, in others that requisite for the sub- 4. Modern diaconate or twenty-two, unless they Organ- must be priests, when it would be ization. twenty-four; practical experience in ecclesiastical service or in an educational position, or at least a notable degree of learning; and in some cases native birth, either within the country or the diocese. Besides the full canons there are in some countries honorary canons- in Austria and France deserving clerics who hold merely an honorary title witliout effective membership in the chapter, while in Prussia, although the obligation of residence is not imposed, they have