THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
the fact that they were modeled on public dooinients, or whether it is derived from forma in the sense of " seal," or whether the rigid phraseology gave rise to the epithet. (A. Harnack.)
Bibliography: Bingham, Origines, XVII. iii. 6-8, cf. II. iv. 5, and references given there to earlier literature; DC A, i. 407-408.
COMMENTARIES. See Exegesis or Her- MENEUTics, IV., § 2, and bibliography; see also the articles on the different books of the Bible for commentaries on particular books.
COMMERCE AMONG THE ANCIENT ISRAELITES.
Trade Routes Through Palestine (§ 1).
The Beginnings of Hebrew Commerce (| 2).
Solomon (§3).
The Two Kingdoms (§ 4).
After the Exile (§ 5).
Palestine lay on the chief commercial highways of the ancient world, being traversed by the roads which connected Babylon and Egypt, and by the routes which united the more distant East with the ^Mediterranean. From Egypt the great military road ran along the coast to Beirut and then inland to Assyria, while south of Mount Carmel a branch traversed the plain of Jezreel, and crossed the Jordan on its way to Damascus and the Euphrates. Gaza was the terminus of the road connecting Akabah and southern Arabia with the I. Trade Mediterranean, while the second great Routes road out of Arabia ran along the east- Through ern edge of the east- Jordan district Palestine, northward to Damascus. Active commerce early developed along these routes. As early as 3000 B.C. Sargon I. and Gudea of Lagash obtained cedars from the Amanus as well as stone and timber from Phenicia. The Egyptian trade wdth Syria developed but little later. This interchange became important even at this early period inasmuch as each region lacked some of the products of the other. Egypt obtained its silver from Asia, while Babylon needed gold from Nubia; Amanus and the Lebanon were the sources of timber; Arabia produced perfumes and spices. The middlemen were, in the main, in the oldest time the Phenicians, who by virtue of their geographical position were well qualified to perform such a function. By 1500 B.C. Phenicia controlled trade with Egypt, while for the East the Arameans, somewhat later, assumed a similar position. In the South the trade with Arabia and India passed through the hands of the Minseans, who had centers for trade with Damascus in their North Arabian province of Muzri, as well as on the coast, their warehouses being at Gaza.
Through their settlement in Canaan the Israelites became interested in this system of commerce, although it was not until they had assimilated the culture of the region that they could take part in trade. Nor did they, at first, need 2. The Be- commerce, since the native productions ginnings of were sufficient for them. Trade ac- Hebrew cordingly pursued its old course un- Commerce. disturbed, and Canaanite and Phenician retailers traversed the land with their wares, so that " Canaanite " long remained a synonym for "merchant" (Job xli. 6; Isa. xxiii.
8; Hos. xii. 7). Within Palestine salt was an article which could be obtained only by trade from the Dead Sea. When, however, in the reign of Solomon, Israel was secure against foreign aggression and had assimilated the Canaanites, it sought its share in international commerce. Trade with Phenicia increased as the development of culture created needs not met by native products and workmanship. Solomon imported from Tyre timber and artisans (II Sam. v. 11; I Kings v. 13-18). The establishment of the northern kingdom by the house of Omri had a powerful influence on trade and the development of Phenician industries. Purple, products of the loom, and works of art in brass, silver, gold, and the like found ready purchasers among the Israelites, who gave in return the surplus of their oil, wheat, honey, and similar exports (I Kings v. 11; Ezek. xxvii. 16 sqq.). There was also an active trade in slaves (Amos i. 9), and the tribes of Zebulun and Issachar, settled near the Phenicians and along the trade routes through the plain of Jezreel, were the chief middlemen (Deut. xxxiii. 18-19).
Solomon cooperated with the Phenicians in voyages from Ezion-geber on the Red Sea to Ophir, the land of gold, which apparently lay on the southern coast of Arabia (see Ophir). In their " ships of Tarshish," as the vessels were later called when Tarshish became their port of destination, the crews of Hiram of Tyre sailed with the officials of Solomon, returning with gold, silver, ivory, apes, and peacocks (I Kings ix. 26-28; cf. x. 22 and
3. Solomon. Benzinger's commentary ad loc).
The account of the queen of Sheba seems to show that trade was carried on with the Minseans, who were succeeded by the Sabeans, and Minaean Midianites are described as merchants and leaders of caravans (Gen. xxxvii. 28, 36). At a later time Ezion-geber and the road leading to it came under the sway of the Edomites, but the attempt of Jehoshaphat to resume control of the Red Sea ended in failure (I Kings xxii. 48-49), and there is no record of further really successful undertakings of a similar character.
It is obvious that trade with Egypt was active in the reign of Solomon, especially as he was connected by marriage with the Pharaoh. After the
division of the kingdoms, Israel tra-
4. The Two ded with Phenicia and Syria rather Kingdoms, than with Egypt, while Judah dealt
with its southern neighbor, although in all other respects it was cut off from international commerce, since the trade routes ran through the northern kingdom. Commerce was likewise carried on in the north with the Arameans. Solomon obtained horses from Muzri in northern Syria and from Kue (Cilicia) through the Arameans and Hittites (1 Kings x. 28-29, according to the correct reading). Later, when Israel came under the political domination of the Arameans, commerce increased correspondingly, and Israelitic merchants in Damascus had at one time their bazaars in the markets just as Damascus traders had theirs in Samaria (I Kings XX. 34), although what the articles of commerce were is unknown.
Previous to the exile, however, Israel was not a