THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
There are three orders of membership. The first, the novitiate or outer order, consists of those who receive the faith, but choose to Hve in their own families. The second or junior 3. Organ- order is composed of those who, being ization and under no charges or bonds to prevent Govern- their Hving in community, choose to ment. enjoy the benefits of that situation without entering into full membership. They retain the title to their property, though they may give the use of it for the time to the family. The third order is made up of those who become fuU members and dedicate themselves permanently to the society. Should such members afterward withdraw, they take nothing away as a matter of right, but in practise " no person who withdraws peaceably is sent away empty." The government of the community is vested in a ministry composed of four elders, two of each sex. Of the several ministries, that of Mt. Lebanon, N. Y., is recognized as the central executive of all the societies. Subordinate to the ministry are two male and two female elders in every fully organized community or family in each society, having charge of its spiritual affairs, and two deacons and two deaconesses subordinate to the elders and having charge of the temporal concerns. A Shaker village usually includes two or more families of thirty or forty persons each, living in unitary houses, having their own households, and being 4. Religious independent in domestic affairs. Services. The religious service includes ad- Present dresses, singing of hymns and an- Statiis. thems, and a characteristic rhythmical marching, accompanied by other movements, in which all take part. These exercises are supposed to be a survival of move-
ments characteristic of the founders of the society. The Shakers had at one time eighteen societies. The present number is fifteen, with about twentyfive families and about 1,000 members. No exact evaluation of their property has ever been made, but it is believed to be worth between $3,000,000 and $5,000,000. W. H. Larrabee.
Bibliography: For list of Shaker literature consult J. P. MacLean, A Bibliography of Shaker Literature, Columbus, O., 1905. For the history consult: H. Elkins, Fifteen Years in the Senior Order of Shakers, Hanover, N. H., 1853; F. W. Evans, Compendium of the Origin, History, Principles, of the United Society of Believers in
Christ's Second Appearing, New York, 1853; C. E. Robinson, Concise Hist, of the . Shakers, E. Canterbury, N. H., 1893; W. A. Hinds, American Communities, pp. 32-68, Chicago, 1908; Anna White and Leila S. Taylor, Shakerism, its Meaning and Message, Columbus, O., 1904. For the doctrines and practises consult: F. W Evans, ut sup.; idem. Second Appearing of Christ, Boston, 1853; idem, Tests of Divine Inspiration, New Lebanon, 1853; idem, Celibacy from the Shaker Standpoint, New Lebanon, 1866; idem. Shaker Communism, London, 1871; Testimony of Christ's Second Appearing, 4th ed., Albany, 1856; H. L. Eads, Shaker Sermons [Lebanon, N. Y.], 1879.
Bibliography of the general subject: Besides the works of NordhofI, J. H.Noyes, and W A. Hinds, mentioned under the societies above, all of which deal more or less with general features, consult: H. A. James, Communism in America, New York, 1879; V. Steccanella, Del Comunismo, Rome, 1882; L. Felix, Entwickelungsgeschichte des Eigentums, Leipsic, 1883; M. Kaufmann, Socialism and Communism, London, 1883; E. de Laveleye, Le Socialisme contemporain, Paris, 1888 ; D. Bergstrom, Kommunism och Socialism, Stockholm,1890; A.Hauck, DerKommunismus im christlichen Gewande, Leipsic, 1891; B. Malon, Le Socialisme integral, Paris, 1893; R. Pohlmann, Geschichte des antiken Kommunismus und Socialismus, 2 vols., Munich, 1893-1901; K. Kautsky, Communism in Central Europe at the Time of the Reformation, London, 1897; M. von Nathusius, Die Mitarbeit der Kirche an der Losung der sozialen Frage, Leipsic, 1897. Phases of the subject are treated under Christian Socialism and Socialism.
I. Definition and Names. II. History of the Discipline.
Reasons for Its Recent Origin (§1). Prejudice Peculiarly Potent (§ 2). Preparatory Work (§3). Max Miiller and Recent Developments (§ 4). III. Aim and Scope. IV The Methods Employed. V The Auxiliary Sciences.
The Method of History (§1). The Facts of History (§ 2). Comparative Mythology and Folklore {§ 3). Other Allies (§ 4). VI. The Results. 1. In Primitive Religion, a. Primitive Religion in the Psychological Sphere. Animism Defined (§1).