THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
with variations not only by the Lutherans there, but also by the Episcopal Church. The Reformed synods in America were in the main ID. The framed on the French model, except Synodal that the elders were chosen by the System in congregations and were considered as America, representatives of the congregations.
As to the Lutherans, it is to be observed that they came not only from Germany, but also from the Netherlands, where the presbyterial system had been in force from the beginning, and from Sweden, which had something of a similar organization. But even among the Germans the fact that their principal organizer, H. M. Muhlenberg (q.v.), belonged to the school of Spener and organized his congregation with elders gave an impulse toward the adoption of the synodal system. The first Lutheran synod was held in Philadelphia in 1748, consisting of six pastors and a larger number of lay delegates, (see Lutherans). After 1760 annual synods were held. The Episcopal Church, as the daughter of the Church of England, began with the same constitution; but the separation following upon the War of Independence forced it to adopt a new organization, whose principles were established in the General Conventions of Philadelphia, 1784, and Richmond, 1785, both composed of clergy and laity sitting together. The former laid down the principle " that to make canons or laws there be no other authority than that of a representative body of the clergy and laity conjointly," which has since been followed (see Protestant Episcopal Church). See Church Council. (A. Hauck.)
Bibliography: For the collections of the Acta of Councils by Labb^, Harduin, Mansi, and Hefele see vol. i. of this work, Preface, p. xix. The earliest collection was by J. Merlin, Concilia generalia, Paris, 152.3, 1530, 1536,. followed by that of P. Crabbe, Concilia omnia tarn generalia quam particularia, 2 vols., Cologne, 1538. Partial collections and translations are: H. T. Bruns, Canones apostolorum et conciliorum, Berlin, 1839; W. Lambert, Church Canons; the first four Councils, London, 1871; J. Chrystal. Authoritative Christianity; the Decisions of the six sole ecumenical Councils, vols, i.-iii., Jersey City, 1891- 1904; J. Fulton, Index canonum; Greek text. Eng. transl., and complete Digest of the . . Canon Law of the undivided primitive Church, New York, 1892. A translation of the canons and decrees of the seven ecumenical councils is in NPNF, 2d ser., vol. xiv. The Acts of the Catholic synods since 1682 are in the Acta et decreta sanctorum conciliorum recentiomm, 7 vols., Freiburg, 1870 sqq.
Collections for individual lands are: J. F. Schannat and J. Hartzheim, Concilia Germanics, 11 vols., Cologne, 1749- 1790; MGH, Concilia, vols, i.-ii. 1, 1893-1906; J. Sirmond, Concilia antiqua Gallia, 3 vols., Paris, 1629; Conciliorum Gallice collectio, Paris, 1789; D. Wilkins, Concilia Magnm Britannice et Hibernice, 4 vols., London, 1737; E Gibson, Synodus Anglicana, ib. 1854; J. W. Joyce, England's Sacred Synods, ib. 1855; Haddan and Stubbs! Councils; J. Robertson, Concilia Scotice, Edinburgh, 1866; Synodicon Belgicum, ed. J. F. van de Velde and P. F. X. de Ram, 4 vols., Mechlin, 1828-59; H. Reuterdahl, Statuta synodalia veteris ecclesice Sveogothicce, Lund, 1841; J. S. de Aguirre and J. Catalano, Collectio maxima conciliorum omnium Hispanice, Rome, 1753; C. Peterfy, Concilia ecclesice Romance Catholicce in regno Hungarice, 2 vols., Posen, 1741-42; J. Aymon, Tous les synodes nationaux des iglises reformees de France, 2 vols.. The Hague, 1710; E Hugues, Les Synodes du desert, 3 vols.. Pans, 1885.
Discussions on the subject are: F. Salmon, Traite de I ttude dea conciles et de leurs collections, Paris, 1724 and often; A. J. Binterim, Geschichte der deutschen Con-
cilien, 7 vols., Mainz, 1835-48; W A. Hammond, The Definitions of Faith and Canons of Discipline of the Six Oicumenical Councils, Oxford, 1843; L. Richter, Geschichte der evangelischen Kirchenverfassung in Deutschland, Leipsic, 1851; G. Lechler, Geschichte der Presbyterial- und Synodalverfassung seit der Reformation, Leyden, 1854; J. F. von Schulte, Die Stellung der Concilien, Papste und Bischofe vom historischen und canonischen Slandpunkte, Prague, 1871; E. Michaud, Discussion sur les sept conciles cecumenigues, Bern, 1878; E. B. Pusey, The Councils of the Church from 51 to . S81,
Oxford, 1878; E. Hatch, The Growth of Church Institutions, London, 1887; idem. The Organization of the Early Christian Churches, ib. 1895; H. Finke, Konzilienstudien zur Geschichte des IS. J ahrhunderts, Miinster, 1891; W. Bright, Notes on the Canons of the First Four General Councils, London, 1892; E. H. Landon, Manual of the Councils of the Holy Catholic Church, 2 vols., ib. 1893; W P. Du Bose, The Ecumenical Councils, New York, 1896; P. Gu^rin, Les Conciles geniraux et particuliers, 3 vols., Paris, 1897; P. de Felice, Les Protestants d'autrefois, 5 vols., Paris, 1897-1902; K. von Schwartz, Die Entstehung der Synoden, Leipsic, 1898; H. von Hoffmann, Das Kirchenverfassungsrecht der nieder- Idndischen Reformierten, ib. 1902; G. B. Howard, Stories of the First Four Councils, London, 1906. The subject is treated in all the principal treatises on church history; the literature on the individual councils and synods will be found under the articles dealing with them. A valuable guide may be found in Ceillier, Auteurs sacres, index volume under " Conciles," giving directions to a rich literature. Consult also DCA, i. 473-485; KL, iii 779-810.
COUNTERREFORMATION: The general name for the complex of causes and results which from the middle of the sixteenth century checked the progress of the Protestant Reformation and won back to the Roman Catholic Church much of the territory and the prestige which had been apparently lost to it; in a narrower sense, the reform and revival in the Roman Church which was one of these causes. See Reformation; Roman Catholic Church; Italy, the Reformation in; Spain, the Reformation in; also the articles upon the events, leaders, and agencies of the Counterreformation which are mentioned in these articles, as well as the articles devoted to the Counterreformation in certain lands and localities, viz.: Albert V OF Bavaria (for Bavaria); Balthazar of Dbrnbach (Fulda); Cysat, Renward (Switzerland); Daniel, Elector of Mainz (the Eichsfeld); Ferdinand II. (Austria); Gebhard II., Elector of Cologne (the Lower Rhine); Inner Austria; Jacob Christopher, Bishop of Basel (Switzerland); Jacob of Eltz (Archbishopric of Treves); Julius Echter (Wtirzburg).
COURAYER, cu"ra"ye', PIERRE FRANCOIS LE:
Roman Catholic; b. at Rouen Nov. 17, °1681; d. in London Oct. 17, 1776. He became canon of St. Genevieve in Paris 1697, presbyter and professor of theology 1706, librarian of the abbey 1711. He was interested in the reunion of the Anglican with the Roman Catholic Church, and defended the validity of Anglican orders in a series of books which were fiercely attacked by Gervaise, Hardouin, Le Quien, and others, and were formally condemned by the French bishops. Encouraged and helped by Bishop Francis Atterbury, he went to England in 1728, where he spent the rest of his life. He was excommunicated in 1728; nevertheless he always professed to be a true Roman Catholic, although he rejected certain of the alleged