THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
(c. 1238). These, naturally, were doubly energetic in their advocacy of the canon law, and above all they antagonized lay patronage. Conflict From the middle of the thirteenth between century, most of the Icelandic bishops Church were foreigners. However, the few and State ; native ones labored zealously in the Degeneracy, spirit of the metropolitan. The conflict between Church and State flamed up with especial vehemence when, in 1275, Bishop Ami Thorlaksson of Skalholt attempted to carry the new church law, thoroughly based on the canon law, through the Alting (the Icelandic legislative assembly) . By the introduction of this new church law, the ecclesiastical power triumphed over the temporal, and the authority of the spirituality was on a like footing with that in other countries of the 'West. But by the same process the great national interest which the clergy had exhibited in earlier times vanished. From the earliest times, in fact, there had flourished not only at the episcopal sees, but also about a number of priestly residences, schools of science and especially of national history. Priests like Saemundr and Ari were at the same time students of the history of Iceland. These priestly schools were supplemented by schools in connection with the cloisters. The oldest cloister of Iceland is the Benedictine at Thingeyrar, founded in 1133, and this was followed by six more for monks and two for nuns, all founded by the Benedictine and Augustinian orders. The stirring intellectual industry of the clergy, which prevailed in the island until about the middle of the thirteenth century, now began to cease. Stress was laid on externals, and people wTere generally satisfied if the layman knew his Credo and Paternoster, and perchance the A re Maria. Conduct was for the most part disregarded by the clergy, who shut their eyes to superstition and immorality, and became themselves avaricious and immoral. An improvement did not set in until the Icelanders had absorbed the spirit of the Lutheran doctrine in " flesh and blood." The Reformation, like the introduction of Christianity, in Iceland was helped forward by royal mandate. From the fourteenth cen- The Refor- tury the island, along with Norway, mation. had accrued to Denmark. After Christian III., in 1536, had adopted Luther's doctrine in his dominion proper, he labored zealously to advance the same in Iceland as well. A number of clergymen were already on the ground who had learned to know the new doctrine, but they met with vehement opposition on the part of the Icelandic bishops and the Icelandic people. Among them was Oddr Gottskalksson, who rendered into Icelandic the New Testament according to Luther's translation. A command of King Christian III. was read aloud in the Alting, to the effect that the new church regime should be adopted in the island, but Bishop Jon Arason of Holar and the people of the North, as well as many in the diocese of Skalholt, stayed loyally papal. Only after these men were out of the way was the opposition broken. At the Alting of 1551 the Danish church system was recognized as binding for all Iceland. Most of the church and cloister estates were confiscated
by Danish officials for the king; church revenues, such as the episcopal tithes, likewise flowed into the royal exchequer. By this process the incomes of the clergy, who were elected by the congregation and inducted by the government, became somewhat meager. There consequently ensued a dearth of suitable preachers, and not infrequently one pastor would assume charge of several parishes combined. At the head of these clergymen stood the bishops of Holar and Skalholt, likewise designated by the Danish king. Of the episcopal sees, that of Holar came to an end in 1801, whereas, prior to that event, the bishopric of Skalholt had been transferred to the present capital, Reikiavik. Moreover, the immorality among laity and clergy remained very much the same as of old. For this reason the adherents of the new doctrine deported themselves with a fanaticism that calls to mind the uprising of the Anabaptists. Cloisters were destroyed, churches plundered, and many valuable literary treasures were obliterated. Hence the introduction of the Reformation has been repeatedly described by the Icelanders themselves as a national misfortune. Only in the course of the seventeenth century did Luther's spirit penetrate deeper into the hearts of the people; by which time, thanks to the fostering of the art of printing (introduced about 1550), and the founding of the Latin schools at Holar (1552) and Skalholt (1553), scientific interest had been awakened anew. No inconsiderable influence in this direction had also been contributed by Bishop Gudbrandur Thorlaksson of Holar, who published, in 1584, the first complete translation of the Bible in the mother tongue, and issued several collections of good spiritual hymns. The devotional poetry inaugurated by Gudbrandur achieved its crowning success about one hundred years later, in the passion psalms of Hallgrimur Pjetursson.
Iceland is now thoroughly Protestant, although according to the law of the year 1874, there prevails
complete freedom of belief. All at-
Present tempts to reinstate Roman Cathol-
Conditions. icism in the island have miscarried.
At the head of the church system stands the bishop of Reikiavik, who supervises the common-school system. The country is divided into twenty church districts, each directed by a superintendent. There are 141 parishes in Iceland, comprising 299 churches. The junior clergy are trained in the theological school at Reikiavik, where they are accustomed to spend three years after completing the gymnasium course, and are then practically inducted into the pastoral office by an older clergyman. E. Mogk.
Bibliography: A very rich list of Icelandic literature and of books about Iceland is given in the British Museum Catalogue, where is found also a list of the " Icelandic post- Reformation Bishops." Sources for study are: Arcs Jslanderbuch, ed. W. Golther, Halle, 1892; Biskupasogur, 2 vols., Copenhagen, 1S58-7S; Sturlunga Sana, ed. G. Vigfusson, 2 vols., Oxford, 1878; Diplomatarium Islandicum, vols, i.-viii., Copenhagen, 1S57-1908; important contents are in the Heimskringla of Snorri, ed. F. Jonsson, Copenhagen, 1893-1901. Theoldest Christian statutesare in the Grdgas, ed. with preface, V, Finsen, 3 vols., Copenhagen, 1850-83. For later times, of service are -.Biskupa annalar Jons Egilssonar, ed. J. Sigurdson, i. 15-136, Safn til Sogu Islands; and Annular Bjiirns a Skardsa (1400-1645),