THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
and earnest attempts have been made to rescue the core of Christianity from the general flux of history and give to it a fixed character. Since it is in the universities, chiefly, that the sciences are cultivated, naturally the universities have been reorganized in conformity to the changed ideals. It was in the University of Jena that German Idealism got its first foothold. From here the new educational ideal went forth to the newly established universities of Berlin, Heidelberg, Bonn, Breslau, and Munich, and into the secondary schools. The effect of this reform has been to rescue philosophy from its servile position in the faculty of liberal arts and give it the position of that pure and true science which determines the principles of all other science, whether theoretical or practical.
(E. Teoeltsch.)
III. English and American Idealism: In Great Britain the earlier representatives of Idealism were Ralph Cudworth, Samuel Clarke, and George Berkeley (qq.v.). Cudworth, one of the Cambridge Platonists (q.v.), in opposition to the sensualistic philosophy of Hobbes, in his True Intellectual System of the Universe (1678), maintained that the human mind participates in
i . Early the archetypal ideas which are eter-
Phases. nal in the mind of God; by divine illumination these ideas are quickened in the soul. Clarke's idealism appears in his famous argument for the being of God, based upon innate conceptions of space and time, of being, of necessary existence, and of the infinite (Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God, 1705), and in his doctrine of the absolute right — the " eternal fitness of things " — derived from his doctrine of God (The Unchangeable Obligations of Natural Religion, 1706). Berkeley affirmed that all ideas are only states or motions of the spirit. So-called material properties have no existence outside of the spirits in which the perception arises; accordingly, the universe consists only of spirits and their ideas. The source of these ideas is God, by whom they are impartially and immutably created (Selections from Berkeley's Works, edited by A. C. Fraser, London, 1891). In America during this period, Idealism found a voice in Jonathan Edwards (1758). In his Notes on the Mind, penned ere he had reached early manhood, is a doctrine of the world quite in the spirit of Berkeley, although not dependent on him, which in some aspects anticipates the absolute idealism of Hegel. " The material universe exists nowhere but in the mind." " All material existence is only in idea." " That which truly is the substance of all bodies is the infinitely exact, and precise, and perfectly stable Idea, in God's mind, together with his stable will, that the same shall gradually be communicated to us, and to other minds, according to certain fixed and established Methods and Laws " (Notes 34, 40, 13, in his Works, New York, 1830).
In recent thought Idealism has well-nigh supplanted other forms of interpretation of the world. The point of view is that "mind has the importance of a universal and cosmical principle of reality." The field is, however, divided into various sections. (1) As applied to epistemology or the
grounds upon which our thought of reality is shown to be valid, the principal representatives are B. P. Bowne (Theory of Thought and 2. Modern Knowledge, New York, 1897) and Idealism. G. T. Ladd (Philosophy of Knowledge, New York, 1897). (2) In metaphysics' F.H. Bradley (Appearance and Reality , London, 1897) holds that all finite things of every variety are in the last analysis unreal, yet these are aspects of the one Absolute, and it or he is their reality. J. Royce (The World and the Individual, 2 vols., New York, 1900-01) presents the ultimate reality as the " internal meaning of an idea." In agreement with Royce, A. E. Taylor (Elements of Metaphysics, New York, 1907) declares that the Absolute is a conscious life which simultaneously and in perfect unity includes in its experience the totality of existence, i.e., existence is ultimately mental. (3) In the philosophy of religion treated from the idealistic point of view, the principal writers are J. Caird (Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion, Glasgow, 1880), with profound reliance upon Hegel's great work on the same subject, and G. T. Ladd (Philosophy of Religion, New York, 1905). (4) In ethics, in which the end is presented as realization of the rational self, the more significant works are those by F. H. Bradley, Ethical Studies (London, 1876); T. H. Green, Prolegomena to Ethics (ib. 1883); J. H. Muirhead, Elements of Ethics (ib. 1892); J. S.Mackenzie, Manual of Ethics (4th ed., New York, 1901); G. H. Palmer, Field of Ethics (Boston, 1901); idem, Nature of Goodness (ib. 1904); G. T. Ladd, Philosophy of Conduct (New York, 1902), and J. Royce, Philosophy of Loyalty (ib. 1908). (5) As an interpretative principle as applied to the history of religion and especially to the development of Christian doctrine, vindicating the rational element in these, against the denial of the same in a proposed return to the simplicity of the Gospel on the one hand, and on the other against the principle of external authority, the reader is referred to E. Caird, Evolution of Religion (Glasgow, 1893) and Evolution of Theology in the Greek Philosophers (ib. 1900-02), and J. Watson, Philosophical Basis of Religion (ib. 1907).
C. A. B.
Bibliography: The best means for a study of Idealism, outside the works of the individual philosophers, are the treatises on the history of philosophy, such as: E. Zeller, Die Philosophic der Griechen, Tubingen, 1844, new ed., 1892, Eng. transl., 2 vols., London, 1897; W. Wlndelband, Geschichte der Philosophic, Freiburg, 1890-92, Eng. transl., New York, 1893; J. E. Erdmann, Geschichte der Philosophie, 2 vols., Berlin, 1895-96, Eng. transl., 3 vols., London, 1891-98; F. Ueberweg, Geschichte der Philosophic 9th ed. by Heinze, Berlin, 1903-05, Eng. transl. of 4th ed., London, 1875-76. Consult further: C. L. Hendewerk, Der Idealismus des Christenthums, Kbnigsberg, 1862; A. Grant, in Fortnightly Review, xv (1871), 363-374; H. Taine, History of English Literature, London, 1S7. ; T. Carlyle, Characteristics, in his Works, London, 18S2; W. L. Davidson, in Mind, xiii (1888), 89-93; J. Wedgwood, Ideals of Life, New York, 1888; A. Ricardou, De V ideal, Paris, 1891; A. Drews, Deutsche Spekulation seit Kant, Leipsic, 1893; R. Eucken, Grundbegriffe der Gegenwart, ib., 1893; idem, Lebensanschauungen der grossen Denker, ib., 1899; M. Pujo, L'Idralisme integral, Paris, 1894; J. Merz, European Thought in the 19th Century, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1896-1903; C. Renouvier, Introduction a la philosophic analytique de V histoire, Paris, 1896; idem, Philosophic analytique de I'histoire, vols, iii.— iv., ib., 1897;