THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
The tenth century saw the flowering of Jewish culture in Spain, especially at the court of Abdul- Rahman III. at Cordova. The first of 3- Jewlsh the series of noted Jewish scholars was Spain. m Samuel Halevi ibn Nagdela (b. 993), rabbi, author and poet. Then came Jona Marinus (Merwan ibn-Ganach, 995-1050), grammarian and exegete; Solomon ibn-Gebirol, who wrote in Arabic Mekor hayim, " The Fountain of Life," a cosmogony which contained little especially Jewish except a basis in the divine word of power, being a syncretism of Neoplatonism and Aristotelianism. This was translated into Latin
100 years later and was much used by the Schoolmen. Bahya ibn-Pakuda wrote (1050-60 a.d.; cf. JE, ii. 447 sqq.) a " Guide to Inner Duties " based on Platonic asceticism. The celebrated Solomon bar Isaac (cf . JE, x. 324 sqq.) , known as Rashi (q.v.) , wrote his commentary in the first half of the eleventh century. The greatest Jewish poet of all the centuries was Judah Halevi (1086-1145; cf. JE, vii. 346 sqq.), who wrote the songs which have become the national pride of Jews. He proclaimed the sovereignty of Judaism and the preeminence of Jews on the ground that from Adam down they alone had preserved the gifts of grace and the essence of manhood. Jews were between angels and the highest rank of men; proselytes might partake of the external blessings of Jews, but could never reach the height of privilege which belonged to the native Jew. Israel is God's servant upon whom are laid the ills and hurts of mankind. The destruction of Jerusalem was of divine purpose that the earth might be leavened with the Jewish spirit. Twenty years later Abraham ibn-Daud (cf. JE, i.
101 sqq.) used Aristotelian philosophy to prove Judaism the one system of truth and reason. Abraham ibn-Ezra of Toledo (1088-1167; cf. JE, vi. 520 sqq.) was a keen critic, though a superstitious astrologer and alchemist. Most celebrated of all was Moses ben Maimun, known best as Maimonides (1135-1204; q.v.), in whom the movement just sketched reached its height. Soon after his death arose not merely the banning by the rabble of Maimonides' writings, but hostility to all study of philosophy. Jews divided themselves into followers and opponents of Maimonides, but until the time of Spinoza the Jews did nothing further for philosophy.
While at first the Jews were favored under the Arabs of Spain, later they were forced either to accept Islam or to leave the country, r'al Sit Pa- ^ey then began to take the side of the tion in Christians and assisted Alfonso X. in Spain to tne conquest of Seville, for which serv- 1469. ice they were given three mosques to use as synagogues. But in 1260 the old laws of the Goths were revived and new restrictions were imposed. On the other hand Christians were not to dishonor synagogues, force baptism of Jews, or employ legal measures against them on Jewish feast days. Many of these laws remained a dead letter. A little later the Dominican Raymond of Penaforte (see Dominic, Saint, and the Dominican Order, § 4) undertook his mission to the Jews. At the instigation of Pope Clement IV., Jayme I. of
Spain ordered that all passages in the Talmud opposing Christianity should be erased. Under Alfonso X. of Castile began a golden age for the Jews, during which they appeared at court and gained riches and position. Under Don Pedro (1350- 1369) even more favorable was their situation, but with his fall great reverses were experienced. Jews were forbidden to bear Spanish names and were compelled to wear a distinguishing mark; in order to make headway against Jewish usury, to Christians Jews were ordered to remit a third of their indebtedness. Disputations took place in which the systems of Christianity and Judaism were attacked and defended. Even Jews bewailed the greed and selfishness of men of their own nation who were in positions of wealth and power, and the voices of eminent Jewish scholars were raised against such men as impious and godless. In Seville in 1391 occurred the first popular rising against the Jews, suppressed only by royal troops. Three months later, in a new uprising, 4,000 Jews were slain, the wives and children sold to Mohammedans, and two synagogues converted into churches. Many Jews suffered themselves to be baptized, among them Samuel Abrabanel; in Cordova and Toledo also many Jews became nominal Christians. These became a great' danger to the Church, preserving as they did in secret their fidelity to Judaism and the Talmud, and were more under suspicion and more hated than those who had remained faithful to their religion. Some, however, showed great sincerity and endeavored to convert their brethren, among whom may be named Solomon Levi of Burgos (1353-1435; cf. JE, ix. 562- 563), who received ordination and, as Paul of Burgos, attained a high position, becoming bishop of Seville. Other zealous converts were Joshua Lorqui, whose Christian name was Geronimo of Santa F€, physician to Benedict XIII., and Vicente Ferrer, who even in the synagogues assailed Judaism. At this time an edict was issued assigning the Jews to special residence quarters, inhibiting certain trades, offices, and commerce with Christians, ordering a style of dress with the Jewish mark on it, and prohibiting the trimming of the beard and the carrying of weapons. Continued popular uprisings drove many of the Jews over to Christianity, while the synagogues were changed into churches. Benedict XIII. ordered a disputation which was held in Tortosa. It lasted fifteen months, and held sixtyeight sessions, in which Joshua Lorqui disputed with sixteen of the foremost rabbis. As a result Benedict issued his bull forbidding the reading of the Talmud, while the scurrilous writings on the life of Jesus were proscribed, especially the Mar mar Jesu. A period of literary polemics between Jews and Christians ensued which lasted for fifty years. In 1442 Pope Eugenius IV. issued a bull to the bishops of Castile and Leon enforcing the old church laws against Jews, and King John IV. put forth an edict protecting them, which the territorial limitation of his authority made of little value. Almost no Jewish literature was produced, while the works of Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, and William of Occam were translated into Hebrew. Cabalistic works continued to appear, and Jews