MYSTICISM.
I. Definition and Description. Essential Character (§ 1). Relation to Religion (§2). Attainment of Mystical Conditions (§ 3). II. History.
In the East (§ 1).
Scholastic and Monastic Mysticism (§2).
Early Protestant Mysticism (§ 3).
Post-Reformation Roman Catholic Mysticism (§ 4).
Late Protestant Mysticism (§ 5).
Mysticism in England (§ 6).
In America (§ 7).
I. Definition and Description: Like many other psychological concepts, mysticism scarcely admits of rigid definition, since its elements, though rooted in the individual soul, so cross with other elements in the course of the development of i. Essential each person, and give rise to such corn- Character, plex phenomena, that exact delimitation becomes impossible. To gain even an approximate notion of mysticism, a distinction must first be drawn, a number of elements must be eliminated, particularly all that results from senseperception, and all that may be deduced from such perception by dialectics in the widest sense of the term. When, on the other hand, from external perceptions feelings arise which can not logically be deduced from such perceptions, but can arise only through the cooperation of the peculiar spiritual organism pf man, such feelings may be termed mystical. Mysticism has its real beginning, therefore, when the mystical element becomes ascendent over man in connection with the world that surrounds him, and when his soul seeks to be in harmony with the universe that encompasses it, or, more accurately, with the Supreme, however this ' Supreme be conceived. The way in which the ends of mysticism are acquired is primarily self-introspection. It is true that there is here an element of human cooperation and will, but since the will is unable of itself to produce the inner experience which it desires, but needs to be met by a divine grace which both purifies and illumines the soul, mysticism involves the concept of revelation, and thus comes into relation with religion. \ All religion depends on revelation of some sort, Veal or assumed, and this revelation, independent of human will yet authoritative for future generations, is transmitted by tradition. When, however, religion depends only on historicity and tradition, it becomes barren, legalistic, and lifeless. It accordingly needs a third element if it is to be-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Mystagogical Theology Mysticism
come a living thing to the individual. This is found in personal, inward experience, which is itself a secondary form of revelation, yet is 2. Relation accessible to all who believe the authorto Religion, itative revelation. This element of personal experience, which is essential to mysticism and without which religion can scarcely exist, forms the bond between mysticism and religion. This union is the closest in Christianity, which from the first has contained a strongly mystical element. From religion mysticism may receive tendencies at variance with its real nature, as the desire of persecution; but, on the other hand, mysticism may oppose aberrations in religion. The latter case is, however, comparatively rare. Mysticism may indeed oppose a purely external religion, yet it seldom attacks vitally what is definitely established by the religious body to which a given mystic belongs. Before such definite principles mysticism bows, in conformity with its individual character as contrasted with the social character of religion. The mystic is essentially concerned with God and his own soul, and if he be undisturbed, he readily conforms to external ordinances.
Mystical conditions may be induced by certain agencies. In the lowest stages certain narcotics may be employed, though these are utterly rejected by higher mysticism. Again, bodily 3. Attain- movements and postures may be asment of sumed, as the whirling of dervishes or Mystical the immobility of Hesychasts (q.v.: Conditions, and see Ecstasy) . The common agencies, however, are solitude, silence, asceticism, and concentration of thought on the divine. Among the agencies shared by both religion and mysticism, prayer is preeminent. In the case of mysticism, such prayer is strictly inward, going so far as to hold prayer expressed in words as of inferior worth, and to maintain that the only prayer which really pleases God and helps man is " mental prayer," which utters no word, but expresses the inmost longing for God; so that later, especially in post-Reformation Roman Catholic mysticism, " prayer " came to connote the mystic state in general. Certain phenomena highly valued by many are mistrusted and deemed of secondary worth by some of the greatest mystics, this category including visions, the hearing of voices, bilocation, levitation, etc., the reality of which can not be affirmed. That on which the great mystics lay stress is far different; it is the release of the soul from finite bonds and its conduct to inward communion with God. This communion may be construed as one of essence, the result being pantheistic mysticism; or it may be regarded as absolute surrender to God; and so slight is the distinction between the two views that it is often impossible to distinguish outwardly whether a given mystic is a pantheist or not. While human will and human endeavor prepare the way for the highest flights of mysticism, man can not of himself produce them. They are a divine gift, which God grants to whom, when, and where he will, nor may all gain them who devote themselves to the mystic life. Nevertheless, they form the goal of the mystic vay. The stages in this way are mainly described either as " purgative,"
" illuminative," and " unitative," or as " meditation," " contemplation," and " mystic union." The former classification requires first the purifying of the soul from sinful wishes and acts; then, when a certain degree of perfection has been gained, illumination from God; and finally, ecstatic and complete union with God. In the second classification " meditation " is regarded as natural and humanly controlled reflection which is already directed toward the supreme goal; " contemplation " bears man beyond the natural sphere through grace to higher and higher perfections, above which lies nothing but " mystic union." A distinct form of mysticism is often thought to be found in quietism, but this, strictly speaking, means simply the complete and permanent negation of the will, as in primitive Buddhism; and it requires a degree of submission which has conquered every impulse of the individual will, whereas true mysticism, despite its submission, by no means excludes struggle against individual nature and against individual will.
II. History: Since Christian mysticism has rereceived from the Christian religion many impressions and influences, as well as influences from other
sources which have affected it and,
1. In the through it, the mystical element of
East. the Christian religion, and even the
history of that religion, a full history of Christian mysticism would require constant reference to the development of the Church in general, as well as detailed discussion of the origin of each of the various mystical phenomena. Here only a survey of the main elements can be given. It is frequently denied that mysticism was present at the very beginning of Christianity, but such a view is erroneous. Mysticism is present in Paul (cf. Gal. ii. 20; Rom. viii. 22) as well as in John, and is also revealed in such early productions as the epistles of Ignatius of Antioch and in the " Shepherd " of Hennas. Meanwhile mysticism had received a peculiar development from without which, in itself alien to Christianity, nevertheless exercised a strong influence upon it. An important factor here was Philo of Alexandria (q.v.), whose teachings included unity with the Godhead (though man may gain it only temporarily and through ecstasy ■» and the Logos (q.v.); Philo not only modified early Christianity, but also influenced, or at least was nearly akin to, Neo-Platonism (q.v.). These theories deeply impressed not only Origen and his school, but even his opponent, Methodius (q.v.). The fourth century, with its rise of monasticism, was highly important for mysticism, which was fostered by the solitude and meditation on the inner life practised by the higher class of monks, a remnant of this mystic contemplation being contained in the fifty homilies of Macarius (q.v.). AH tbi= was further aided by the growth of Symbolism (q.v.) in the liturgy, admirably illustrated by the "Catechetical Lectures ' of Cyril of Jerusalem (q.v.); while, on the other hand, individual mysticism finds its influential representative in the " Ladder of Paradise " of Johannes Climacus (q.v.; see also Mystagogical Theology). The period of conflict that racked the Church after the Council of Chalcedon witnessed one of the most remarkable
Mysticism