THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
gave him a high idea of the influence of literature on church life; he was the first prince of the Church who took up seriously the question of establishing a clerical censorship of books. (H. Bohmer.)
Bibliography: The Epistolce are to be found in MPL, cxix. 769 sqq., cxxix. 1011-16. Consult: E. Dummler, Geschichte des ostfrdnkischen Reiches, ii. 52-217, Leipsic, 1887; H. Lammer, Papst Nicholas I. und die byzantinische Staatskirche seiner Zeit, Berlin, 1857; J. M. F. Frantin, Le Pape Nicolas I. et le jeune roi Lothaire, Dijon, 1862; F. Rocquain, La Papautt au moyen dge, Paris, 1881; J. Langen, Geschichte der romischen Kirche, iii. 1- 113, Bonn, 1892; J. Roy, in Etudes d'histoire du moyen dge dedies a Gabriel Monod, pp. 95-105, Paris, 1896; idem, Saint Nicholas I., London, 1901; F. Gregorovius, Hist, of the City of Rome, iii. 120-155, London, 1895; Creighton, Papacy, i. 14-15, ii. 330; Bower, Popes, ii. 229-267; Milman, Latin Christianity, iii. 21- 56, 119; Platina, Popes, i. 227-230; Mann, Popes, iii. 1-148; Hauck, KD, ii. 533-557.
Nicholas II. : Pope 1058-61. Immediately after the death of Pope Stephen X. (Mar. 29, 1058) the aristocratic party at Rome proceeded to secure the succession in the person of a candidate of their choice; and on April 5 Bishop Giovanni of Velletri was officially enthroned as Benedict X. Realizing that this promotion might reproduce the conditions which had formerly necessitated the interference of Henry III., Hildebrand effected an understanding with Duke Godfrey, whereby Bishop Gerard of Florence was to supplant Benedict X., contrived to alienate a faction of the Romans from Benedict and win them for Gerard, and obtained the assent of the empress of Germany to the proposed election of Bishop Gerard. Accordingly, the cardinals, who had fled from Rome, were convened at Siena, and Bishop Gerard was elected pope in Dec, 1058. In Jan., 1059, Benedict X. was expelled from Rome, and on Jan. 24 Bishop Gerard was enthroned as Nicholas II.
Events having shown that the Normans were not to be driven from southern Italy by force, Nicholas II. came to terms with them peaceably in Aug., 1059. He invested Duke Robert Guiscard with Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily; Prince Richard with Capua, receiving in turn their oaths of allegiance. Robert promised to observe loyalty to the pope, to support the Roman Church in the maintenance of its sovereign prerogatives and possessions, to assist Pope Nicholas in securely and honorably safeguarding the Roman papacy, and lastly, in the event of the death of Nicholas II. or of his successors, to give heed to the admonition of the cardinals and render due aid in electing and installing a pope in keeping with the honor of St. Peter. In the terms of a second oath, and in order to emphasize the relationship of vassal and lord, Robert promised to discharge an annual tribute of twelve denarii to the pope for every yoke of oxen. Thus the Normans obtained recognition of the fruits of their policy of conquest, and the right of expectancy to further territorial enlargements, while the pope gained such military support as made him independent alike of the Western and of the Eastern Empire. Thanks to the Normans' assistance Pope Benedict X. was reduced to capitulation at Galera in the autumn, and thus the factional nobility's papacy was annulled. This alliance with the Normans had its complement in an understanding with the Paterenes (q.v.) in north- |
em Italy, the immediate result of which was the subjection of Milan to the papal see.
The effects of these alliances with the Normans and the Paterenes were manifest at the Lateran synod of Nicholas II. in April, 1059. The synod could not profess to represent the Church at large, seeing that hardly any but Italian ecclesiastics were present. Its most important enactment was the adoption of the celebrated law with reference to the papal election which instituted new canons of procedure regarding the occupancy of the papal see (cf. Mirbt, Quellen, 2d ed., no. 181, pp. 97 sqq.). This law contains the following provisos: (§ 1) That after a pope's decease, and first in order, the cardinal bishops shall assemble for the sake of advising in regard to who shall be the papal successor. In the next place, that when they have reached an agreement they shall convene the cardinal clerics and, conjointly with these, complete the election, whereupon the rest of the clergy and the people of Rome shall voice their assent in the way of conclusion. (§ 2) Cardinal bishops and cardinal clerics take the lead, in course of the election, being followed by the other participants. (§ 3) The candidate for the papal dignity is to be sought, first of all, among the Roman clergy; but if no suitable choice is here to be found, a candidate may then be selected elsewhere. (§ 5) Rome holds the first rank for place of election. In the supposable contingency that owing to the depravity of evil men, a pure and unadulterated election were out of the question there, the cardinal bishops shall have the right, in conjunction with the cardinal clerics and devout laymen, even though but few in number, to elect the pope at what place they deem proper. (§6) In the contingency that, after due election, some stress of war, or any malevolent onset whatsoever, prevents the elected pontiff from being enthroned in the apostolic see in accord with the traditional usage, nevertheless, being once elected, he shall possess plenary ecclesiastical authority as pope. This clause is corroborated by the paragraph on royalty (§ 4) : " Withal shall bounden honor and respect be observed toward our beloved son Henry, who is presently king, and of whom the hope is entertained that with God's help he may one day become emperor; even as we have already so granted him approbation as likewise to his successors, who have gained this right (imperial dignity) from this apostolic see." This law aimed first of all to legalize, by canonical process, the course pursued at the elevation of Nicholas II. It was at once the means, however, of permanently committing the papal elections to the sway of a new set of factors; and inasniuch as this purpose was also achieved, it marks a turning-point in the history of pontifical elections.
At the synod of 1059 measures were enacted regarding celibacy, and a law was passed prohibiting lay investiture. At the same time Berengar of Tours retracted his doctrines on the Eucharist. At a new synod in the spring of 1060 a decree was framed against simonists, Benedict X. was solemnly divested of his dignities, and the new election law was ratified. Soon after this synod the cardinal priest Stephen went as papal legate to the German court to allay the disfavor prevalent in that quarter;