THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
by the most diverse tendencies. The result has already been certain gains which can not be lost, but the ultimate outcome is still problematical. This entire process involves religious painting in its fortunes, and every attempt to separate this type of art from the rest, and to treat it as a distinct entity, has injured it instead of being to its advantage. (Victor Schultze.)
Bibliography: Besides the literature under Art, Christian, consult on the general subject: F. X. Kraus, Synchronistische Tabellen zur christlichen Kunstgeschichte, Freiburg, 1880; idem, Geschichte der christlichen Kunst, 3 vols., Freiburg, 1896-1900; J. O. Westwood, Palasographia sacra pictoria, London, 1845; R. Garrucci, Storia della arte cristiana, 6 vols., Prato, 1881; J. P. Lundy, Monumental Christianity, New York, 1882; E. Oilier, A Popular History of Sacred Art, London, 1882; C. Atz, Die christliche Kunst, Bozen, 1884; A. W. C. Lindsay, Sketches of the History of Christian Art, 2 vols., London, 1885; E. Frantz, Geschichte der christlichen Malerei, 2 parts, Freiburg, 1887-94; A. de Charnpeaux, Histoire de la peinture decorative, Paris, 1890; F. Bournand, Hist, de I'art chretien, 2 vols., Paris, 1891; A. Conti, Religione ed arte, Florence, 1891; F. Buettgenbach, Die kirchliche Kunst in Monographien, 2 vols., Aachen, 1899; W. Lowrie, Christian , Art and Archaeology, London, 1901; N. Bell, The Saints in Christian Art, 3 vols., London, 1901-04; J. Ficker, Studien uber christliche Denkmdler, Leipsic, 1902; E. Gradmann, Geschichte der christlichen Kunst, Calw, 1902 ; A. Lecoy de la JIarche, La Peinture religieuse, Paris, 1902; R. Buerkner, Geschichte der kirchlichen Kunst, Freiburg, 1903; E. Cabrol, Dictionnaire, Paris, 1903 sqq.; J. P. Richter and A. C. Taylor, The Golden Age of Classic Christian Art, London, 1904; A. Michel, Histoire de I'art depuis les premiers temps Chretiens jusqu'a nos jours, Paris, 1905.
On early Christian art consult: J. N. Diepolder, Theologieund Kunst im Urchristentum, Augsburg, 1882; F. R. Salmon, Histoire de I'art chretien aux dix premiers siecles, Lille, 1891; J. Wilpert, Die Katakombengemalde und ihre alten Copien, Freiburg, 1891; E. L. Cutts, History of Early Christian Art, London, 1893; F. Wickhoff, Roman Art. Some of its Principles and their Application to early Christian Painting, London, 1900; J. R. Allen, Celtic Art in Pagan and Christian Times, 1904; V. Schultze, Die Katakomben von S. Gennaro dei Poveri in Neapel, Jena, 1877; idem, Die altchristlichen Grabstatten Siciliens, Berlin, 1907; L. von Sybel, Christliche Antike Einfilhrung in die altchristliche Kunst. Vol. ii., Plastik, Architektur, und Malerei, Marburg, 1909. For Byzantine art consult: N. Kondakoff, Hist, de I'art byzantin, 2 vols., Paris, 1886-91; J. Strzygowski, Der Bilderkreis des griechischen Physiologus, des Kosmas Indikopleustes und Oktateuch, Leipsic, 1899; idem, Orient oder Rom, ib. 1901; H. Brockhaus, Die Kunst in den Athosklostern, Leipsic, 1891; W. R. Lethaby and H. Swainson, The Church of Sancta Sophia, London, 1894. On manuscripts and mural decorations consult: J. O. Westwood, The Miniatures of Anglo-Saxon and Irish Manuscripts, London, 1869; F. X. Kraus, Die Wandgemalde der St. Georgs- Kirche zu Oberzell auf der Reichenau, Freiburg, 1884; idem, Die Wandgemalde von S. Angelo in Formis, Berlin, 1893; G. Clausse, Les Monuments du christianisme au moyen &ge. Basiliques et mosaiques chretiennes, 2 vols., Paris, 1893; E. Male, L'Art religieux du xii. siecle en France, Paris, 1898; L. von Kobell, Kunstvoll Miniaturen und Initialen aus Handschriften, 4.-16. J ' ahrhunderten, Munich, 1890; A. Labitte, Les Manuscrits et I'art de les orner, Paris, 1893; H. V. Sauerland und A. Haseloff, Der Psalter Erzbischof Egberts von Trier in Cividale, Treves, 1901; W. R. Lethaby, Mediaeval Art, London, 1904; G. von Kalcken, Peintures ecclesiastiques do moyen age, Haarlem, 1910. For Italy consult: W. Lubke, Geschichte der Italienischen Malerei, 2 vols., Stuttgart, 1878; E. Montegut, Artistes de Vltalie, Paris, 1881; L. Scott, The Renaissance of Art in Italy, London, 1883; J. Burckhardt, Der Cicerone, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1884; idem, Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien, 2 vols., ib. 1885; B. Riehl, Deutsche und italienische Kunstcharaktere, Frankfort, 1893; G. Gruyer, L'Art ferrarias a Vepoque des princes d'Este, 2 vols., Paris, 1897; J. Burckhardt, Beitrage zur Kunstgeschichte von Italiens,
Basel, 1898; H. Wolfflin, Die klassische Kunst, Munich, 1899; idem, The Art of the Italian Renaissance, London, 1903; A. Philippi, Die Kunst der Renaissance in Italien, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1905; S. Brinton, The Renaissance in Italian Art, 9 vols., London, 1907. For Germany consult: W. Wackernagel, Die deutsche Glasmalerei, Leipsic, 1855; A. Woltmann, Holbein und seine Zeit, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1873-76; L. Grote, Lukas Cranach, der Maler der Reformation, Dresden, 1883; H. Otte, Handbuch der kirchlichen Kunstarchaologie des deutschen Mittelalters, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1883-85; E. Paulus, Bilder aus Kunst in Deutschland, Stuttgart, 1883; R. Springer, Kunsthandbuch fur Deutschland, Berlin, 1883; M. Thausing, Durer, Leipsic, 1884; H. Thode, Die Malerschule von Niirnberg im 14- und IB. Jahrhundert, Frankfort, 1891; A. Springer, AJbrecht Durer, Berlin, 1892; H. Janitschek, Geschichte der deutschen Malerei, Berlin, 1890; L. H. Cust, The Paintings and Drawings of A. Durer, London, 1897; R. Borrmann, Aufnahme mittelalterlicher Wand- und Deckenmalereien in Deutschland, Berlin, 1897 sqq.; O. Doering and G. Voss, Meisterwerke der Kunst aus Sachsen und Thuringen, Magdeburg, 1905; M. Zucker, Durer, in Schriften des Vereins fur Reformationsgeschichte, vol. xvii (contains further literature). For France consult: F. Bournand, Hist, de I'art en France, Paris, 1891; L. Horsin-Deon, Hist, de I'art en France, Paris, 1891; P. Gelis- Didot, La Peinture decorative en France du xvi. au xviii. siecle, Paris, 1896-99. For other countries and special phases consult: H. Riegel, Beitrage zur niederlandischen Kunstgeschichte, 2 vols., Berlin, 1882; F. Ewerbeck, Die Renaissance in Belgien und Holland, Leipsic, 1883-89; F. M. Tubino, Estudios sobre el Arte en Espana, Seville, 1886; P. Flat, L'Art en Espagne, Paris, 1891; P. Paris, Essai sur I'art de I'Espagne primitive, 2 vols., Paris, 1903- 1904; C. von Lfltzow, Geschichte des deutschen Kupferstiches und Holzschnittes, Berlin, 1891; F. Lippmann, Der Kupferstich, Berlin, 1893; R. Muther, Geschichte der Malerei im 19. Jahrhundert, 3 vols., Munich, 1893-94; E. S. Prior, A History of Gothic Art in England, London, 1900; A. Venturi, The Madonna. A pictorial Representation by Painters and Sculptors, London, 1902; J. Meier- Graefe, Entwickelungsgeschichte der modernen Kunst, 3 vols., Stuttgart, 1904.
PAJON, pa"jon', CLAUDE: French Protestant; b. at Romorantin (25 m. s.e. of Blois) in 1626; d. at Orleans Sept. 27, 1685. He was educated at Saumur under Amyraut, and at the age of twentyfour was appointed pastor at Machenoir. In 1666 he was called to Saumur as professor of theology, but his views that the presence of Christ and of his spirit in the faithful implied simply the presence of Christ's image and a corresponding frame of mind and that sins were due to ignorance, roused such controversy that, though supported by the verdict of the provincial synod in 1667, he resigned in 1668 to become pastor at Orleans. Though he disseminated his theories only in his correspondence and by word of mouth, his pupils did not observe an equal reserve. The rumor of Pelagio-Arminian heterodoxy at a time of dogmatic sensitiveness occasioned his examination in 1676 by Jean Claude, the Reformed preacher of Paris. This led to no mutual understanding, but in the following year a second conference resulted in the adoption of measures by the academies of Sedan and Saumur and the provincial synods against theological candidates who had adopted Pajon's tenets, in spite of the disavowal of Pelagianism by Pajon and his pupils. Throughout this period Pajon published nothing bearing on his special views; his two books — Examen du livre qui porte pour titre Prejugez legitimes contre les Calvinistes (Bionne, 1673), and Remarques sur I'Avertissement pastoral (Amsterdam, 1685) — being in defense of the French Reformed Church. His last months were embittered by the destruction of ulS