THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Schoonhoven, 1869). Independ it is the work of H. W J. Thiersch (Die Gleichnisse Christi, Frankfort, 1875) and of J. P. Lange (Herzog, RE, 1st ed.), the latter of whom saw in the seven parables of Matt. xiii. " the entire history of the development of the kingdom of God from beginning to end." F. L. Steinmeyer's book (Die Parabeln des Herrn, Berlin, 1S84) is full of spiritual and surprising combinations. A. Jiilicher has opened up new paths, has taken up the problem of the transmission of the parables (Die Gleichnisreden Jesu, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1S99), and emphasizes the unity of the parable as a model in which the essence is in the parathesis or juxtaposition of religious verity. See Exegesis or Hermeneutics. (G. Heinrici.)
Bibliography: On the theory and interpretation: G. C. Storr, De parabolis Christi, vol. i. of his Opuscula academiea, pp. 89-143, Tubingen, 1796; A. F. Unger, De parabolarum Jesu natura, interpretatione, usu scholar exegeticce historicce, Leipsic, 1831; J. L. S. Lutz, Biblisehe Hermeneutik, pp. 347-362, Stuttgart, 1849; B. Weiss, in Deutsche Zeitschrift fur christliche Wissenschaft, iv (1861), 309-338; C. Weizsaeker, Untersuchungen iiber die evangelische Geschichte, pp. 177, 209, 212, Gotha, 1864; A. Immer, Hermeneutik des neuen Testaments, pp. 176-188, Wittenberg, 1873, Eng. transl., Andover, 1877; H. C. Tamm, Der Realismus Jesu in seinen Gleichnissen, Jena, 1886; A. Jiilicher, ut sup., vol. i.; DB, iii. 662-665; EB, iii. 3563 sqq. Exegetical literature is as follows: S. Bourn, Discourses on the Parables, in vols, iii.— iv. of his Series of Discourses, 4 vols., London, 1760-64; A. Gray, Delineation of the Parables, ib. 1777; N. von Brunn, Das Reich Gottes, nach den Lehren Jesu Christi, besonders seine Gleichnissreden, Basel, 1831; F. G. Lisco, Die Parabeln Jesu, Berlin, 1832, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1840; E. Buisson, Paraboles de Vevangile, Basel, 1849; A. Oxenden, Parables of Our Lord, London, 1868; W. Arnot, The Parables of Our Lord, New York, 1872; W. Beyschlag, Die Gleichnissreden des Herrn, Halle, 1875; H. Calderwood, The Parables of our Lord, London, 1880; M. Dods, The Parables of our Lord, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1883-85; S. Goebel, Die Parabeln Jesu, Gotha, 1880, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1884; S. D. F. Salmond, Parables of our Lord, ib. 1893; W. H. Thomson, The Parables and their Homes, New York, 1895; B. W Martin, Practical Studies on the Parables of our Lord, London, 1897; I. Stockmeyer, Exegetische und praktische Erklarung ausgewahlter Gleichnisse Jesu, ed. K. Stockmeyer, Basel, 1897; C. A. Bugge, Die Haupt-Parabeln Jesu, mit einer Einleitung iiber die Methode der Parabeln- Auslegung, Giessen, 1903; C. Ricketts, Parables from the Gospels, New York, 1903; P. Fiebig, Altjudische Gleichnisse und die Gleichnisse Jesu, Tubingen, 1904; G. C. Morgan, The Parables of the Kingdom, New York, 1907; and literature on the Life of Christ, and the commentaries on the Gospels.
PARABOLANOI: A brotherhood at Alexandria in the fifth century devoted to the care of the sick. The (Greek) term means " those who expose their lives." The members of the fraternity possessed clerical privileges, and so many accordingly joined to escape public burdens that in 416 and 418 Theodosius II. forbade honorati or curiales to become parabolanoi, and limited their number to 500, later raising it, however, to 600 (Codex Theodosianus, xvi. 2, De episcopis, 42^3). Their appointment was made by the bishop, and they practically formed an armed episcopal bodyguard. They gained an evil notoriety at the consecration of Cyril, the murder of Hypatia, and the synod of Ephesus in 449; and must at times have terrorized Alexandria. At Constantinople and elsewhere (as at Ravenna; MPL, cvi. 588) the parabolano'^ found their counterpart in the college of deans.
(H. Achelis.)
Bibliography: Bingham, Origines, III., ix., XXIII., iii. 7; Tillemont, Memoires, xiv. 276 sqq.
PARADISE: Name of a place or state. The Hebrew word pardes (Neh. ii. 8; Eccles. ii. 5; Cant, iv. 13; also the Targums and the Talmud) and the Greek word paradeisos (Septuagint), as well as the equivalent in Persian, whence the word has been adopted into all the other languages in which the Bible has appeared, means a wooded garden or park. But in the Bible it is used in a twofold sense: (1) for the garden of Eden; (2) for the abode of the blessed in heaven, of which Jesus spoke to the penitent robber (Luke xxiii. 43), to which Paul was caught up (II Cor. xii. 4), in which are those who have overcome (Rev. ii. 7). For the determination of the word in the geographical sense see Eden. Attention is limited in this article to its Jewish and patristic interpretation. First in consideration, it was taken allegorically. The chief representatives of this view are Philo (" Laws of Sacred Allegories "), Origen (Homilice ad Genesim; Contra Celsum, iv. 38-39, Eng. transl. in ANF, iv. 514-515; De principiis, iv. 14, Eng. transl. in ANF, iv. 362-363), and Ambrose (De Paradiso ad Sabinum). To Philo, Paradise stood for virtue; its planting toward the east meant its direction toward the light; the division of the one river into four, the fourfold aspect of virtue as cleverness, thoughtfulness, courage, and righteousness. This method of allegorical interpretation came over into the Christian Church, and appears in Papias, Irena;us, Pantsenus, Clement of Alexandria, in the Antiochian School, Epiphanius, and Jerome, and the majority of Christian writers of the time of Ambrose. To Origen, who in the Old Testament, and particularly in the account of the creation and the Paradise, found much that was derogatory of God, Paradise was a picture of the human soul, in which flourish the seeds of Christian virtues; or a picture of heaven, wherein the " trees " represent the angels, and the " rivers " the outgoings of wisdom and other virtues. He did not, however, deny a literal Paradise; he only sought in allegory the harmonization of the Mosaic and New-Testament conceptions. To Ambrose, the Pauline Paradise was the Christian soul. He also distinguished between the literal and the Pauline Paradise.
In the second place, Paradise was interpreted mystically. The Mosaic and the New-Testament representations of Paradise were considered identical, and place was found for it in a mysterious region belonging both to earth and heaven. The chief representatives of this interpretation were Theophilus of Antioch (" To Autolycus "), Tertullian (Apologeticus), Ephraem Syrus, Basil (Oratio de Paradiso), Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa, Cosrnas Indicopleustes (" Christian Topography "). and Moses Bar-Cepha (Tractatus de Paradiso), Those who doubted the identity of the two paradises were few, as Justin Martyr, the Gnostic Ba,rdesanes, and Jerome. In the poems of Ephraem (fourth century), which embody the speculations of Theophilus, Tertullian, and Basil, Paradise was generally conceived to have three divisions. The first begins at the edge of hell, around which flowed the ocean, and in a mountain which overtops all earthly mountains. The one river of Paradise flows from