PERSIA, MISSIONS IN.
I. The Early and Medieval Periods.
Christianity till the Arab Conquest (§1). Medieval Period (§2). II. The Modern Period. Beginnings (§1).
Work of Congregationalists and Presbyterians (§ 2). Other Protestant Missions (§ 3). Roman Catholic and Greek Church Missions (§ 4). Results (§ 5). Conditions of Work (§ 6).
I. The Early and Medieval Periods: The first great center of Christianity in the East was Edessa as early as the second century (cf. F. C. Burkitt, Early Eastern Christianity, New York, 1904). According to Harnack, Die Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums, Leipsic, 1902, 2d ed., 1906; Eng. transl., Expansion of Christianity, 2 vols., London and New York, 1904-05, new ed., 1908) there were Christians in the same century also in
i. Chris- other parts of Mesopotamia and along tianity till the lower Tigris. Legendary Christian
the Arab history of course goes farther back and
Conquest, ascribes the origins of Christian missions to the Apostle Thomas (q.v.) or to Addai, supposed to have been one of the Seventy, or even to the Magi. Perhaps the first authentic name in connection with missions is that of Mari, the founder of the see of Seleucia-Ctesiphon (see Mahonites, § 2). During the third century Christianity spread through Mesopotamia, and by the fourth century it seems to have entered the Iranian highlands in the southwest (Khuzistan, Hormizdshahir, Ahwaz) and farther north about Holwan. This expansion was due to the transportation of Christian captives from Syria as well as to conversions. The establishment of Christianity as the imperial Roman religion marks also the beginning of its persecution by the Persian Sassanian kings. The Syriac Acts of the martyrs show that there was in spite of persecution a very true missionary spirit evidenced by conversions of Zoroastrians and by a fairly definite apologetic of Christianity. The names of the martyrs and the high rank of some of them would indicate that Christianity was gaining followers from Iranians as well as from Arameans. Meantime it spread eastward. There is mention of a bishop of Tus in Khorasan in 422, of the martyrdom in 447 of Pithion, a successful missionary among the mountaineers, and a generation later of Mar Saba, a convert from Zoroastrianism, who spent his life as a missionary to the Kurds. The
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Perseverance Persia
great figure in the Sassanian period,* both as a church administrator and as a missionary leader, is the Nestorian Patriarch Mar Aba (d. 552). He was himself a convert to Christianity and, rather than renounce the right to evangelize, he endured nine years of imprisonment, which terminated only shortly before his death. The remainder of the Sassanian period was marked by the vigorous extension of Monophysite (Jacobite; see Jacobites) tenets, probably almost altogether among Christians and not among heathen. Jacobite bishops were established in the sixth century in Seistan, Herat, and Azerbaijan. In general, it may be said that in the Sassanian period Christianity, and especially Nestorianism (see Nestorians), extended steadily in spite of the opposition of the State and the state religion, and also steadfastly refused to abjure its right to win converts. Many of the higher Nestorian clergy were themselves converts to Christianity. There were bishoprics in every section of the country. Nevertheless, Christianity did not become properly naturalized in Persia. Its strength was among the Arameans of the plains of the Tigris and the Euphrates and among captives transported into the eastern provinces. Its language was Syriac and there was no popular translation of the Bible into the Iranian tongues.
Probably the Arab conquest, by overthrowing the organized foes of the Christian propaganda, gave an increased opportunity to Christian missionaries, and in the early centuries of 2. Medieval Arab rule Christianity extended so far Period, eastward as to make an entrance into the Chinese empire. There is evidence of missionary work along the borders of the Caspian, in the valley of the Araxes, and in the mountain regions of Kurdistan. The extension of Christianity in central and eastern Asia is outside the scope of this article; though it should be noted that it went from Persia eastward and that the Turkish tribes bordering on Iran and steadily pressing westward were affected by it. Probably the Christians from the first tacitly at least accepted the terms of toleration given by Islam, viz., abstention from the proselyting of Mohammedans, missionary efforts being confined to non-Mohammedans. It should be noted, however, that there are evidences of oral and literary discussion of the two religions by Christians and Moslems. The glory of the Sassanian period had departed and martyrology ends. The Mongol conquests of the thirteenth century gave for a brief time a new hope to the Christian propagandists; for none of the conquerors were fanatical or even zealous in religious matters, and some were Christians. The Christianity, however, was of a very low order, and Islam carried the day with the leaders. These hopes perished in the general ruin resulting from the Mongol and Tatar invasions. At the beginning of the nineteenth century the only remains of Christianity were the ruins of ancient churches and the little bodies of Nestorian and
* It should be remembered that the name Persia does not represent a constant geographical quantity. Its meaning varies with the political itatus and hence in the Sassanian period was far wider than at present, extending then as far west as the eastern boundary of the Roman Empire.
Armenian Christians, in all not over 100,000 souls. As all through the Nearer East, so in Persia there is an almost forgotten chapter of medieval Roman Catholic missions. During the Mongol rule in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries several embassies (of Dominicans and Franciscans) were sent by the popes to the Mongol rulers both in the Far East and in Persia, but their efforts brought no permanent results; similarly without success were the attempts to bring the Nestorians into the Roman communion. In the early part of the seventeenth century political considerations led the Suffavean kings to desire friendship with Europeans, and the Roman Catholics again made an attempt to establish Roman Catholicism in Persia. Ispahan was the scene of the most determined efforts and was made an episcopal seat. Carmelites, Minorites, and Jesuits had establishments there, while Augustinians and Capuchins were also represented, and their converts were not only from the Armenians but also from Mohammedans. But the tide turned again and persecution and anarchy followed. The foreign missionaries were forced to flee, and the number of Christians in Ispahan was greatly diminished. This was in the early part of the eighteenth century. A hundred years later the number of Syrian Christians in the region of Urumia and Salmas had increased and among them were some who had joined the Roman Church, through influence emanating from the efforts to proselyte the Nestorians of the Mosul plain.
II. The Modern Period: The modern era of missions begins with Henry Martyn (q.v.), whose heroic career left the legacy of an undying inspiration and also the translation of the New Testament and Psalms into Persian. The published accounts
of the journeys of Joseph Wolff (q.v.)
i. Begin- served to draw the attention of Amer-
nings. ican Christians to the remnants of the
Nestorians. A few years before this the Basel Missionary Society and the Scotch Missionary Society each began work in Transcaucasia and each, compelled by the Russian government to leave its dominions, sent its missionaries into Persia. Among the Basel missionaries was Karl Gottlieb Pfander (q.v.), the author of the Mizan ul Hakk ("Balance of Truth"; see Mohammedans, Missions to), one of the most remarkable contributions to the controversy with Islam; and among the Scotch missionaries was William Glen, whose translation of the Old Testament into Persian is still in use. These all attempted to work directly for Moslems. The societies that have established permanent work in Persia have all, to a greater or less degree, found a basis for their work in the non-Mohammedan population. In proportion to the total population this is an insignificant part, but from the missionary point of view it is important. Out of about nine millions population, there are about 150,000 non-Mohammedans, divided as follows: Armenians (originally all Gregorians) 70,000, Syrians (originally all Nestorians) 40,000, Jews 25,000, Parsis 10,000. The bodies which support missionary work are the following: of Protestants: Presbyterians, who took up work begun by Congregationalists; Church of England, Church Mis-
Persia