RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Pessimism
Peter of Alcantara
Bibliography: For list of writings of and on Pestalozzi consult A. Israel, Versuch einen Zusammenstellung der Schriften von und liber Pestalozzi, Zschopau, 1894; Monumenta Germanioe pozdagogicm, vols, xxv., xxix., xxxi., Berlin, 1901-05. Biographies are by: E. Biber, St. Gall, 1827, Eng. transl., London, 1831; C. J. Blochmann, Leipsic, 1846; R. Christoffel, Zurich, 1846; H. Morf, 4 vols., Winterthur, 1864-89; P. Krusi, New York, 1875; P. P. Pompee, 2d ed., Paris, 1882; R. de Guimps, 2d ed., Lausanne, 1888, Eng. transl., London, 1890; J. G. Guillaume; Paris, 1890; W. Kayser, Zurich, 1895; L. W. Seyferth, 8th ed., Leipsic, 1904; P. Natorp, Langensalza, 1905, A. Heubaum, Berlin, 1910. Consult further: C. von Raumer, The Life and System of 'Pestalozzi, London, 1855; J. Payne, Pestalozzi; the Influence of his Principles and Practice, London, 1875; A. Vogel, Systematische Darstellung der Padagogik P stalozzis, Hanover, 1886; H. Scherer, Die pestalozzis'che Padagogik, Leipsic, 1896; C. Rothenberger, Pestalozzi als Philosoph, Bern, 1898; A. Pinloche, Pestalozzi et Veducation populaire moderne, Paris, 1902; H. Barnard, Pestalozzi and his Educational System, New York, 1906; J. G. Compayre\ Pestalozzi and Elementary Education, Boston, 1907; W. S. Monroe, Hist, of the Pestalozzian Movement in the United States, Syracuse, N. Y., 1907; R. Seidel, Der unbekannte Pestalozzi der Sozial-Politiker und Sozial-Padagoge, Zurich, 1910.
PETAVIUS, DIONYSIUS (DENIS PETAU): French Jesuit; b. at Orleans Aug. 21, 1583; d. at Paris Dec. 11,. 1652. Educated at Orleans and Paris, he began to teach at Bourges in 1602, but three years later resigned both his professorship and a canonry of OrMans to enter the Society of Jesus. He then studied at the college in Pont-a- Mousson, taught at Reims, La Fleche, and Paris, was professed in 1618, and from 1621 to 1644 was professor of positive theology at Paris.
Petavius' range of learning was vast, extending over classical philology, chronology and history, polemics, patristics, and the history of dogma. He began with classical philology, where his learning was evinced by his editions of Synesius (Paris, 1611), sixteen orations of Themistius (1613), three orations of Julian (1614) and the same author's complete works (1630), Nicephorus with fragments of other Byzantine historians (1616), and, the most important of all his contributions to this sphere of learning, an edition and translation of the complete works of Epiphanius (1622). He likewise composed Orationes (Paris, 1620), Opera poetica (Latin; 1620), and Carmina Grceca (1641).
From classical philology and patristics Petavius was led to the studies in chronology which occupied him for many years. In his De dodrina temporum (2 vols., Paris, 1627) — written largely in criticism of the De emendatione temporum (Paris, 1583) of Joseph Justus Scaliger (q.v.) — Petavius sought to reestablish universal chronology; and this work was supplemented by him in his Tabulce chronologicce regum, dynastarum a mundo con-
dito (1628), Uranologion sive sy sterna variorum authorum qui de sphcera et sideribus eorumque motibus Grace commentati sunt (1630), Rationarium temporum (2 parts, 1633-34; last ed., 3 vols., Venice, 1849; Eng. transl. by R. P., The History of the World: or, An Account of Time, 2 parts, London, 1659), and La Pierre de touche chronologique (1636).
Among the polemic writings of Petavius, aimed at those who would impair the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church, mention may be made of the following: against the Calvinistic Claudius Salmasius (q.v.), Dissertationum ecclesiasticarum Jibri
duo (Paris, 1641) and De ecclesiaslica hierarchia libri tres (1643); against Maturin Simon, dean of Orleans, De pcenitentice ritu in veteri ecclesia (Paris, 1624); against Hugo Grotius (q.v.), De potestate consecrandi et sacrificandi sacerdotibus a Deo concessa (Paris, 1639) ; and against the Jansenists, De libero arbitrio (Paris, 1643), De la penitence publique et de la preparation a la communion (1643), De lege et gratia (164S), De Tridentini concilii interpretation et Sancti Augustini dodrina (1649), and De adjutorio sine quo et adjutorio quo (1651).
Though Petavius' Greek Paraphrasis Psalmorum et canticorum (Paris, 1637) was highly esteemed for its exegetical value, his greatest service to theology was rendered by his avowedly anti-scholastic, De theologicis dogmaticis (5 vols., Paris, 1644-50), which he did not live to complete. The first volume discusses the doctrine of God and the divine qualities in eight books, and predestination in two; the second, the doctrine of the Trinity in eight books; the third, the doctrine of angels' creation, and the hierarchy in twelve books; and the fourth and fifth, the incarnation and the person and work of Christ in sixteen books. The sixth volume, which none but Petavius himself could have written, was to have set forth the doctrines of the sacraments, the law, faith, love, hope, virtues, and vices. After the merits of the work became fully recognized, repeated editions appeared, of which the best is that by J. B. Fournials (8 vols., Paris, 1865-67).
Petavius' correspondence with scholars in France, Italy, Holland, etc., is of value both for the history of learning in the seventeenth century and for his own biography. Only a comparatively small portion, however, has been preserved, this appearing posthumously in his Epistolarum libri tres (Paris, 1652), reprinted in the editions of the Ds dodrina temporum at Amsterdam (1705), Verona, (1734), and Venice (1757). The sum total of his works is reckoned at forty-nine. (O. Zockler-j-.)
Bibliography: The principal sources are his own letters, ut sup.; the funeral oration by H. Valesius, Paris, 1653; and Niceron, Memoires, xxxvii. 81-234. Consult further: F. Stanonik, Dionysius Petavius, Graz, 1876; J. C. V. Chatellain, Le Pere Denis Petau, Paris, 1884; Bayle, Dictionary, iv. 600-602 (worth consulting); KL, ix. 1841-43; Lichtenberger, ESR, x. 507-508.
PETER OF ALCANTARA: Spanish Fra -ciscan and reformer of his order; b. at Alcantara (110 m. s.w. of Salamanca) 1499; d. at Arnas (near Alcantara) Oct. 18, 1562. He entered the order at the age of sixteen, became guardian of a new monastery at Badajoz in 1519, and was ordained priest in 1524. He later lived as a hermit near Soriana, where he wrote his De oratione et meditatione (Eng. transl., by G. Willoughby, A Golden Treatise of M entail Praier, Brussels, 1632; reprinted Liverpool, 1843). In 1538 he was made provincial of Estremadura,. and at once began measures to reform his order. In 1554 he commenced the establishment of a Franciscan congregation of strict observance, and secured the sanction of Julius III. No monastery of these rigidly ascetic " Minorites of the Strictest Observance " (as they were officially known) might contain more than eight monks,
Peter of Alexandria Peter the Apostle