RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Peter the Apostle
have been collected by A. Hilgenfeld in Novum Testamentum extra canonem (iv. 51 sqq., Leipsic, 1884); by E. von Dobschiitz, in TU, xi. 1 (1894); and by E. Preuschen, Antilegomena (pp. 52-54, 143-145, Giessen, 1901). Its date is placed by Harnack (and Von Dobschiitz) as between 110 and 130, and by Zahn between 90 and 100 (too early!); Harnack and Von Dobschiitz agree upon Egypt as the place of composition, the latter more definitely settles upon Alexandria. The fragments preserved indicate that the work was given as the substance of discourses by a spokesman for the apostles, the first person plural being used. It seems to have inculcated particularly a Christian monotheism, and to have been a polemic against Judaistic error and paganism, and an apology for Christianity. The faithful or saints are "a third race " (Gk. triton genos) among heathens and Jews.
4. The Acts: Brief mention should be made of the fact that about Peter's name there grew up a considerable literature, much of it having the character of " tendency writings." Of "Acts " there are two series quite distinct, the " Gnostic Acts " and the " Catholic Acts," which cover practically the same ground but with a marked difference in form of statement. For references and description of these see Apocrypha, B, II., and for part of the literature which developed on the same basis as these series of " Acts " see Clementina.
Geo. W. Gilmore.
Bibliography: The life and development of Peter is treated with more or less completeness in the works on the life of Christ (see under Jesus Christ) ; sketches usually appear also in the introductions to the commentaries on the epistles. For further treatment of his life and activities consult: T. W. H. Griffith, The Apostle Peter, New York, 1905; M. Marquardt, Simon Petrus als Mittel- und Ausgangspunkt der christlichen Urkirche, Kemp ten, 1906; G. V. Lechler, Das apostolische und das nach-apostolische Zeitalter, Gotha, 1857, Eng. transl., The Apostolic and Post-Apostolic Times, Edinburgh, 1886; E. Renan, Les Apdtres, Paris, 1866, Eng. transl.. The Apostles, London, n.d.; A. Hausrath, Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte, Munich, 1879, Eng. transl., particularly Times of the Apostles, London, 1895; J. Schmid, Petrus in Rom, Lucerne, 1879; F. W. Farrar, Early Days of Christianity, London, 1882; J. S. Howson, Studies in the Life of St. Peter, ib. 1883; C. von Weizsacker, Das apostolische Zeitalter, Freiburg, 1886, Eng. transl., Apostolic Age, London, 1894; H. A. Birks, Life and Character of St. Peter, London, 1887; J. B. Lightfoot, in his Apostolic Fathers,
5. Clement of Rome, ii. 481 sqq., London, 1890; C. Fouard, St. Peter and the First Years of Christianity, London, 1892; F. W. Puller, Primitive Saints and the See of Rome, London, 1893; W. M. Ramsay, Church in the Roman Empire, London, 1893; idem, St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen, ib. 1895; A. C. McGiffert, Hist, of Christianity in the Apostolic Age, New York, 1897; J. V. Bartlett, Apostolic Age, Edinburgh, 1900; J. G. Greenhough, Apostles of our Lord, London, 1904 (devotional) ; "W. H. G. Thomas, The Apostle Peter, London, 1904; J. Ninck, Simon Petrus, der Fischer aus Galilaa, Leipsic, 1903; G. Matheson, Representative Men of the N. T ., London, 1905; A. Bran, Essai sur Vapdtre Pierre, Montauban, 1905; L. C. Fillion, Saint Pierre, Paris, 1906; A. J. Southouse, The Making of Simon Peter, New York, 1906; A. Drews, Die Petruslegende. Ein Beitrag zur Mythologie des Christentums, Frankfort, 1910 The discussions in the dictionaries usually cover both the life and the epistles: DB, iii. 756-818 (elaborate); EB, iv. 4599-4627 (life), iii. 3677-85 (epistles); JE, xi. 366-368; DCG, ii. 349-351 ; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, fasc. xxxi , cols. 356-379 (valuable citation of literature).
On the theology of Peter consult the pertinent sections in the works on N. T. theology mentioned in and under
Biblical Theology; also C. A. Briggs, Messiah of the Apostles, pp. 21-41, New York, 1S95; R. W. Dale, The Atonement, pp. 97-148, London, 1875.
On questions of introduction to the epistles the reader should consult the relevant sections in the works on N. T. introduction and on the Canon (see Biblical Introduction; and Canon op Scripture). Consult further: Harnack, Litteratur, ii. 1, pp. 450-475; D. Volter, Der erste Petrusbrief, seine Entstehung und Stellung in der Geschichte des Urchristenthums, Strasburg, 1906; B. Weiss, Der erste Petrusbrief und die neuere Kritik, Gross-Lichterfelde, 1906; E. T. Mayerhoff, Einleitung in die petrinischen Schriften, Hamburg, 1835; B. Weiss, in TSK, 1866, pp. 256 sqq.; Grimm, in TSK, 1872, pp. 657-694; B. B. Warfield, in Southern Presbyterian Review, Jan., 1882, Apr., 1883; F. Spitta, Der Zweite Brief des Petrus und der Brief des Judas, Halle, 1885; P. J. Gloag, Introduction to the Catholic Epistles, Edinburgh, 1887; H. Grosch, Die Echtheit des zweiten Briefes Petri, Berlin, 1889; E. Scharfe, Die petrinische Stromung der neutestamentlichen Literatur, Berlin, 1893; G. A. Deissmann, Bibelstudien, pp. 244- 245, 277 sqq., Marburg, 1895; L. Monnier, La Premiere Epitre de Vapdtre Pierre, Paris, 1902; L. Gontard, Essai critique et historique sur la premiere Spitre de S. Pierre, Lyon, 1905; Link, in TSK, 1896, pp. 405^36; E. A. Abbot, in Expositor, 2 ser., iii. 49 sqq.; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, fascs. xxxi.-xxxii., cols. 380-413.
Commentaries are: C. Bigg, in International Critical Commentary, Edinburgh and New York, 1901; J. B. Mayor (on II Peter and Jude), London, 1907; W. Steiger, Berlin, 1832 (I Peter); J. Brown, 3 vols., Edinburgh, 1848-56; T. Demarest, 2 vols., New York, 1851-65; A. Barnes, New York, 1859; T. Schott, 2 vols., Erlangen, 1861-83; T. Adams, Edinburgh, 1862 (II Peter); F. Steinfass, Rostock, 1863 (II Peter); R. Leighton, republished Philadelphia, 1864; J. Lillie, New York, 1869; T. Harms, Hermannsburg, 1873 (II Peter); G. F. C. Fronmuller, in Lange's commentary, Eng. transl., New York, 1874; J. C. K. Hofmann, Nordlingen, 1875; in C. J. Ellicott's Handy Commentary, New York, 1883; E. H. Plumptre, in Cambridge Bible, 1883; S. D. F. Salmond, in P. Schaff's Popular Commentary, New York, 1883; F. C. Cook and J. R. Lumby, in the Bible Commentary, London, 1881; J. E. Huther, in Meyer's commentary, Eng. transl., 1881; in the Pulpit Commentary, London and New York, 1887; J. M. Usteri, Zurich, 1887; R. Johnstone, Edinburgh, 1888; F. B. Meyer, London, 1890; M. F. Sadler, London, 1891; H. von Soden, in Hand-Kommenlar, Freiburg, 1892; S. Goebel, Gotha, 1893; J. K. Lumby, in Expositor's Bible, London, 1894; K. Burger, Munich, 1895; H. Couard, Potsdam, 1895; J. T. Beck, Gutersloh, 1895; E. Ktthl, Gottingen, 1896; W. F. Besser, Halle, 1899; J. Monnier, Paris, 1900 (I Peter); E. Hopp, Gutersloh, 1901; B. Weiss, Leipsic, 1902; K. Henkel, Freiburg, 1904 (II Peter); J. H. Jowett, London, 1905; H. Gunkel, in Die Schriften des Neuen Testament ubersetzt und fur die Gegenwart erklart, ii. 25 sqq., Gottingen, 1906 (I Peter), and G. Hollmann, in the same, ii. 61 sqq. (II Peter).
On the Apocryphal literature: The principal works on the Gospel are named under Apocrypha. Of the books named there (vol. i., p. 229, col. 1, bottom), those by Harris, Robinson and James, Von Gebhardt, Harnack, and Lods deal also with the Apocalypse. Further literature covering either Gospel or Apocalypse, and sometimes both, is: Funk, in TQS, Ixxv (1893), 255-288; A. Hilgenfeld in ZWT, i (1893), 439-454; J. Kunze, Das neu aufoefundene Bruchstuck des . . Petrusevangeliums, Leipsic, 1893; H. von Soden, in ZTK, iii (1893), 52-92; H B. Swete, The Akmim Fragments of the Apocryphal Gospel o Peter, London, 1893; W. C. Van Manen, Het Evangelie van Petrus, Leyden, 1893; E. Klostermann, Restedes Petrus-Evangelium, der Petrus Apokalypse und des Kerygma Petri, Bonn, 1894; A. C. McGiffert, in Papers of the American Society of Church History, vi. 101-130 New York, 1894 (contains a very full bibliography, including contributions to periodicals, which may be supplemented from Richardson, Encyclopaedia, pp. 37, 412-413); E • *-ocn, in Kirchliche Monatsschrift, xv (1896) 311-388; G. Salmon, Introduction to the Study of the New Tes tament, Pp.
581-591, new ed., London, 1897; V H. Stanton, m JTS ii (1901) 1-25; idem, The Gospels as Historical Documents, Cambridge, 1903; L. Hennecke, Neviestamentliche Apokryphen, pp. 27-32, Tubingen, 1904; Harnack, LU-
Peter the Apostle Peter Comestor