RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Providence
granted, the metaphysical possibility of miracles can not be denied. This is not, however, sufficient for the Christian, who must also be convinced that the whole mechanism of nature serves a divine end. This belief that in every individual instance the world and nature act as the agents of a divine, omnipotent, loving will is immediately connected with the assurance that such prayer as prescribes no laws to the grace of God, but only gives the human conditions for divine activity, will certainly be heard. In considering the relation of providence to the freedom of the will it is always possible, even though divine and human spheres of action are essentially incommensurable, to bring the acts of a created being within the scope of divine action, this being the point of view of faith. To the religious mind man's freedom will always be thought of as freedom in God; the Christian experiences as reality what science can neither attain, prove, nor refute. The stronger the consciousness of his freedom, the greater the conviction of his dependence on God. Even sin, though never caused by God, may, when once committed, become part of the divine plan and serve providence in the advancement of the kingdom of God. A similar method must be applied to the problem of theodicy. The riddle of the world's evil is not solved by theoretical explanations. In his difficulties the Christian is saved from unrest and despair only by the revelation of the atonement and by the conviction that evil and distress are, in God's hands, made the means of his eternal salvation. This solution is open to the humblest Christian and rests on practical experiences, even though such experiences must be differentiated from those intellectual speculations which are bound to arise. Even the religious mind must face the fact that there are questions and problems, and must seek for ways and means which may yield approximate solutions for such riddles. P Lobstein.
While the basis of belief in providence is the love of God as revealed in his gracious purpose, modern thought is not content with so simple and unrelated a position. The scholastic, formalistic, logical splitting-up of the doctrine is indeed no ii. Sup- longer of interest, but other problems plement. aside from those mentioned in the last two sections preceding are demanding attention and solution. Metaphysics, speculative theism, and even scientific views of nature may be driven out with a fork, but their return is legitimate and inevitable. Two further questions profoundly affecting the doctrine of providence will then require consideration: (1) The idea of the divine immanence: the traditional doctrine of providence has been derived from the postulate of transcendence. Now, however, the notion of the immanence of God has compelled two modifications of view, which are of serious import to the subject under discussion. One concerns providence as related to creation. Creation is conceived not as the absolute origination of the existing material of the world out of nothing at a metaphysical moment, but as the eternal becoming or change of manifestation of the Absolute Ground of all. Creation and providence are therefore two ways of conceiving of the
world, as related either to its causal Ground or to its purposive ends. The other modification discloses God as more inwardly and actively involved in the processes of the world, both physical and psychical, accordingly more responsible for the working-out of the ideal aim of the universe than any but the more pantheistic views have hitherto maintained (yet cf. Rom. xi. 36: I Cor. xv. 24-28). (2) The evolutionary view of the world: broadly speaking, this is the universal method of providence. This involves teleology, effectiveness of divine action and control, and ends which are correlated with and consummated in the ideals of personality. With reference to man the sphere of providence is, on the one hand, the world in process of evolution, and, on the other, the development of human historical life. Of particular significance in this latter region are the principle of social unity, the influence of great personalities, and the redemptive power of suffering and sacrifice.
C. A. Beckwith.
Bibliography: For the views of classical authors on the subject, besides the works of Zeller, Windelband, Ueberweg, Erdmaun, and Weber on the history of philosophy, consult: Xenophon, Memorabilia, I., iv., IV., 3; Cicero, De natura deorum, book 2; idem, De finibus, book 3; Seneca, De providentia , R. Schneider, Christliche Klange aus den griechischen und romischen Klassikern, pp. 231— 244, Gotha, 1865; E. Spiess, Logos spermatikos, Leipsic, 1871; L. Schmidt, Die Ethik der alten Oriechen, i. 63 sqq., Berlin, 1881; E. Maillet, La Creation et la providence devant la science moderne, pp. 195-235, Paris, 1897.
On the idea in Hebrew, Jewish, and apostolic circles consult: the works in and under Biblical, Theology; H. Zschokke, Theologie der Propheten des A. T '., pp. 141 sqq., Freiburg, 1877; C. G. Chavannes, La Religion dans le Bible, 2 vols., Paris, 1889; G. Fulliquet, La Pensee religieuse dans le N. T ., Paris, 1893; J. Bovan, fitude sur Voeuvre de la redemption, vols, i.— ii., Paris, 1893-94; K. Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Religion, Strasburg, 1897; E. Sellin, Beitrage zur israelitischen und jildischen Religionsgeschichte, Leipsic, 1897; W. Bousset, Die Religion des Judentums im neutestamentlichen Zeitalter, Berlin, 1903; B. Stade, Biblische Theologie des A. T., Tubingen, 1905.
For the history of the development of the subject the reader is referred to the works named in and under Doctrine, History of: also R. Seeberg, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, Leipsic, 1895-98; F. Loofs, Grundriss der Dogmengeschichte, 4th ed., Halle, 1907. For the Reformers note Luther's Catechisms on the first article of the Apostles' Creed and Zwingli's De providentia, 1529.
For the dogmatic treatment it is to be noted that as a rubric under systematic theology the subject necessarily finds discussion in works on dogmatics (see for titles Dogma, Dogmatics), which usually furnish also lists of works bearing on the topics. Consult further: S. Charnock, A Treatise of Divine Providence, General and Particular, London, 1683; G. W. Leibnitz, Essais de theodicee, 2 vols., Amsterdam, 1710; J. B. Bossuet, Traite de la connaissance de dieu et de soi-mime, Paris, 1722; J. Flavel, Divine Conduct; or, the Mystery of Providence, reprint, Philadelphia, 1840; O. Dewey, The Problem of Human Destiny; or, the End of Providence in the World and Man, New York, 5th ed., 1866; H. Wallace, Representative Responsibility, a Law of the Divine Procedure in Providence and Redemption, Edinburgh, 1867; M. J. Scherben, Handbuch der katholischen Dogmatik, i. 657—664, Freiburg, 1873 (Roman Catholic); R. A. Lipsius, Die gottliche Weltregierung, Frankfort, 1878; G. Kreibig, Die Ratsel der gcittlichen Vorsehung, Berlin, 1886; J. de Maistre, Les Soirees de St. Petersburg, ou entretiens sur le gouvernement temporel de la Providence, 2 vols., new ed., Paris, 1886; W Schmidt, Die gottliche Vorsehung und das Selbstleben der Welt, Berlin, 1887; idem, Der Kampf der Weltanschauungen, ib. 1904; W Beyschlag, Zur V erstandigung uber den christlichen Vorsehungsglauben, Halle, 1888; J. B. Heinrich, Dogmatische Theologie, v. 313-368, Mainz, 1888
Provincial Prudentius of Troyes