RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Samuel Sanbenito
and the following: K. H. Graf, De librorum Samuelis et Regum compositione, Augsburg, 1842; G. E. Karo, De fontibus librorum qui feruntur Samuelis, Berlin, 1862; F. Bottcher, Neue exegetisch-kritische Aehrenlese zum A. T., vol. i., Leipsic, 1863; J. Wellhausen, Der Text der Bilcher Samuel untersucht, Gottingen, 1871; C. H. Cornill, in ZKW- 1885, pp. 112 sqq.; idem, Kbnigsberger Studien, i. 25 sqq., Konigsberg, 1888; idem, Einleitung in das A. T., Freiburg, 1891, Eng. transl., 2 vols., New York, 1907; idem, in ZATW. x (1890), 96 sqq.; K. Budde, in ZATW, viii (1888), 223 sqq.; idem, Die Bucher Richter und Samuel, Giessen, 1890; idem, in SBOT, 1894; R. Kittel, Geschichte der Hebraer, ii. 22 sqq., Gotha, 1888-92, Eng. transl., London, 1895; idem, in TSK, 1892, pp. 44 sqq.; S. R. Driver, Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel, Oxford, 1890 (indispensable) ; A. Kuenen, Historischkritische Einleitung in die Bucher des A. T '., I., ii. 37-62, Leipsic, 1890; T. K. Cheyne, Aids to the Devout Study of Criticism, pp. 1-126, London, 1892; N. Peters, Beitrage zur Text- und Litterarkritik, Freiburg, 1899; S. A. Cook, in American Journal of Semitic Languages, 1900, pp. 145- 177; G. Stosch, Die Urkunden der Samuelsgeschichte, Giitersloh, 1901; P. N. Schlogl, Libri Samuelis, Vienna, 1905; E. Sievers, Metrische Studien, part 3, Leipsic, 1907; Wellhausen, Prolegomena; DB, iv. 382-391; EB, iv. 4273-81; JE, xi. 8-13.
Commentaries are by: H. P. Smith, New York, 1899; 0. Thenius, Leipsic, 1864, 3d ed. by M. Lohr, 1898 (the prefatory notes are valuable); C. F. Keil and F. Delitzsch, Edinburgh, 1876; C. F. D. Erdmann, in Lange's Commentary, New York, 1877; A. F. Kirkpatrick, in Cambridge Bible, 2 vols., Cambridge, 1880-g1; R. Payne Smith and others, in Pulpit Commentary, 2 vols., London and New York, 1880-88; T. J. Conant, Philadelphia, 1884; A. Klostermann, Nordlingen, 1887; W. G. Blaikie, in Expositor's Bible, 2 vols., London, 1887-88; K. Budde, Tubingen, 1902; W. Nowack, Gottingen, 1902; J. Witt, Saul and David. Eine Erklarung der Bucher Samuelis, Kiel, 1902; B. Neteler, Minister, 1903; P N. Schlogl, Vienna, 1904; A. R. S. Kennedy, in Century Bible, London, 1905; P. Dhorme, Paris, 1909; H. L. Willett, Studies in I. Samuel, Chicago, 1909.
SANBALLAT, san-bal'at (Babylonian, "Sin preserves in life"): An opponent of Nehemiah, and a leader against the Jews in their attempts to restore Jerusalem after their return from the exile (Neh. ii. 10, 19-20, iii. 33 sqq., iv. 1 sqq., vi. 1 sqq., xiii. 28 sqq.). His special efforts were directed against the protection of Jerusalem by the erection of the city wall, in whieh he was aided by Tobiah the Ammonite, Geshem (or Gashmu) the Arabian, the Philistines of Ashdod, and the Persians in possession of Samaria. Threats that the king of Persia would regard the building of the wall as an act of rebellion failing, the opponents of Nehemiah proceeded to violence when the wall was half finished. This also proving unsuccessful, Sanballat endeavored by stratagem to get Nehemiah into his power, and thus to ruin his plans. Some of Nehemiah's partizans were actually won over, especially as Sanballat had influential kinsmen in Jerusalem (Neh. vi. 10 sqq., xiii. 28 sqq.). According to Josephus (Ant., XL, vii. 2), who apparently drew from Jewish tradition, Sanballat lived in the reign of Darius Codomannus, and after marrying his daughter to the brother of the high priest Jaddua, set up the temple and worship of the Samaritans on Gerizim. Sanballat is described as a Horonite, implying that he was an Ephraimite from Bethhoron, though some scholars have sought his home in the Moabitic city of Horonaim.
(R. Kittel.) Bibliography: H. Winckler, Altorientalische Forschungen, ii. 228 sqq., Leipsic, 1894; A. A. van Hoonacker, Etudes sur la restauration juive apres Vexil de Babylone, Paris,
1896; T. K. Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life after the Exile, New York, 1898; C. F. Kent, Hist, of the Jewish People, 7th ed., ib. 1905; E. Sachau, Drei aramaische Papyrusurkunden aus Elephantine, Berlin, 1907; DB, iv. 371; EB, iv. 4281; JE, xi. 37; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, xxxv., col. 1443; the commentaries on Ezra-Nehemiah; and the works dealing with this period of history cited under Ahab; and Israel, History of.
SANBENITO, san"be-ni'to: A pentitential garment the wearing of which was one of the punishments inflicted by the Inquisition (q.v.). In its final form it was " a kind of yellow tunic with a red St. Andrew's cross [on the breast and on the back] — a mark of infamy and a severe infliction, as it largely impeded the efforts of the penitent to gain a livelihood" (H. C. Lea, Inquisition of Spain, ii. 401, New York, 1906). Its origin is with probability to be traced to the habit of sackcloth worn by penitents in times earlier than the Inquisition. The sanbenetillo was a stage in the inquisitorial development of the sanbenito and was the device of Torquemada in 1490, consisting of black or gray cloth, eighteen inches long and nine wide, depending from the neck over breast and back, with the red cross on each part. It was worn over the outer garment and was therefore extremely conspicuous. In 1514 Ximenes ordered that the form of cross used should be that of St. Andrew; and in 1561 the "Instructions" (of the Inquisition) directed that the material be yellow (apparently in Valencia and Sicily, of green) linen or cloth, the aim being evidently to increase the conspicuousness of the object and the severity of the penalty. A variation that came into use was a half-cross or diagonal bar, used on the sanbenitos of those regarded as culpable in a less degree. Those who were to be "relaxed" wore a black sanbenito, on which were painted flames and figures of devils thrusting the heretic into hell.
The punishment of wearing the garment was at first inflicted for life. Later different periods were assigned, and the wearing was sometimes conterminous with the period of imprisonment, sometimes only during the period of the auto da fe, at other times the punishment varied with the adjudged degree of guilt or seriousness of the crime. The severity of the punishment can hardly be conceived in modern times and in Protestant environment. It proclaimed the wearer to have been guilty of that most detestable of crimes, heresy. The wearer could with extreme difficulty gain employment, he was an object of general horror and ostracism, and it is probable that many were driven to death by starvation. To discard the garment subjected the wearer to rearrest as one who had recanted his submission to Holy Church with all the penalties which that involved. This led naturally to appeals for dispensation from wearing the garment, and it came before long to the situation that dispensation was made a means of papal revenue and an instrument of exaction, as high as 1,000 florins having been paid in order to avoid the wearing of the sanbenito.
In order to increase the detestation of heresy and to deter from committing such a crime a new use of the garment was devised. The sanbenito was inscribed with the name of the wearer and other details and hung in the churches, this having in view the perpetuation of the memory of the offense.
Sanchuniathon