THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
the Persian Arabic is, of course, not to be considered here).
VI. Relation to Other Families of Languages:
So far as present knowledge goes, it is doubtful whether the Semitic family is genetically connected with any other in the world except the Egyptian and Cushite groups. Various unsuccessful attempts have been made to show a relationship between it and the Indo-European. The case is different with the Egyptian, between whose stock of sounds, personal pronouns, numerals, and verbal forms, and the Semitic there is a remarkable resemblance ; but the great differences between the two families in other respects make great caution necessary in comparing them. There is a similar resemblance between the structure of the Semitic verb and that of the Cushite group of languages (the Galla, Saho, and others, near Abyssinia), but nothing definite. At most, an original Semitic-Hamitic family may be conjectured out of which these two have grown; but in that case their separation took place so long ago, their paths since that time have been so different, and the traces of kinship have been so far obliterated, that little can be got from a comparison between them, except in the way of reconstructing the history of the original family. One main obstacle in the comparison of Semitic words with others is the triliteralism of stems of the former; and it has therefore been attempted to reduce these to biliterals, but hitherto with indifferent success. It need not be denied that this problem may hereafter be solved, and comparisons instituted between Semitic and other families that may be of service to all. C. H. Toy.
Bibliography: General works are: E. Littre, Comment dans deux situations historiques les Semites entrerent en competition avec les Aryens pour Vhegemonie du monde, Paris, 1879; F. Delitzsch, Wo lag das Paradies? Leipsic, 1881 ; F. Hommel, Die Semiten und ihre Bedeutung fiir die Kulturgeschichte der Menschheit, Leipsic, 1881; idem, Die semitischen V biker und Sprachen, ib. 1881; F. Lenormant, Les Origines de Vhist. d'apr&s la Bible et les traditions des peuples orientaux, 2 vols., Paris, 1880-82, Eng. transl. of vol. i., Beginnings of Hist., New York, 1882; T. Noldeke, Sketches from Eastern History (" Some Characteristics of the Semitic Race "), New York, 1892; G. A. Barton, Sketch of Semitic Origins, New York, 1902; and the publications of the Congress of Arts and Sciences (St. Louis Exposition), vol. iii., Boston, 1906.
On the science of language consult: H. Steinthal, Charakteristik der hauptsachlirhsten Typen des Sprachbaues, Berlin, 1x60; F. Max Muller, Science of Language, New York, 1865; W. D. Whitney, Language and the Science of Language, New York, 1873; F. W. Farrar, Families of Speech, London, 1870; A. Hovelacque, La Linguistique, Paris, 1876; A. H. Sayce, Introduction to the Science of Language, London, 1880; J. Byrne, Principles of the Structure of Language, London, 1885; H. Paul, Principles of the Hist, of Language, London, 1891.
On Semitic comparative grammar, lexicography, and language-history consult: T. Benfey, Ueber das Verhaltniss der agyptischen Sprache zum semitischen Sprachstamm, Leipsic, 1844, E. Rcnan, Hist, generate et systeme compare des langues semitigues, Paris, 1863; F. Muller, Indogermanisch und semitisch, Vienna, 1870; F. W. N. Phihppi, Status constructus im Hebraischen, Weimar, 1871- E. Schrader, in ZDMG, xxvii. 3 (1873); A. Koch, Der semihsche Infinitiv, Stuttgart, 1874; W. Wright, Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages, London and New York, 1890; T. Noldeke, in Encyclopa-dia Britannica, xxi. 641-6o6; idem, Beitrilge zur semitischen Sprachwissenschaft, Strasburg, 1904; idem, Neue Beitrage zur semitischen Sprachwissen*chaft, ib. 1909/ H. Ewald, Abhandlung uber die geschichV.iche Folge der semitischen Sprachen, Got-
tingen, 1871; C. Abel, Sprachwissenschaftliche Abhandlungen, Leipsic, 1884; A. H. Huizinga, Analogy in the Semitic Languages, Baltimore, 1891; J. Barth, Die Nominalbildung in den semitischen Sprachen, Leipsic, 1894; idem, Sprachwissenschaftliche Untersuchungen, ib. 1907; O. E. Lindberg, V ergleichende Grammatik der semitischen Sprachen, Gothenburg, 1897 sqq.; A Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions: a comprehensive Collection for the Study of Comparative Semitic Philology, Cambridge, 1898; H. Zimmem, V ergleichende Grammatik der semitischen Sprachen, Berlin 1898; E. Konig, Hebraisch und Semitisch. Prolegomena und Grundlinien einer Geschichte der semitischen Sprachen, Berlin, 1901; idem, Hebraisches und aramaisches Wbrterbuch zum Alten Testament mit Einschaltung und Analyse alter schwererkennbaren Formen. Deutung der Eigennamen sowie der massoretischen Randbemerkungen und einem deutschhebraischen Wortregister, Leipsic, 1901-10; G. Dalman, Grammatik des jiidischen palastinischen Aramaisch, Leipsic, 1905; W. Gesenius, Hebraisches und aramaisches Handwbrterbuch, 14th ed. by F. Buhl and H. Zimmern, Leipsic, 1905; H. L. Strack, Grammatik des biblischaramaischen, Leipsic, 1905; F. Brown, S. R. Driver, C. A. Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the 0. T., Boston, etc., 1906; C. Brockelmann, Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der semitischen Sprachen, part I., Berlin and New York, 1908; idem, Semitische Sprachwissenschaft, Leipsic, 1910; L. Belleli, An Independent Examination of the Assuan and Elephantine Aramaic Papyri with eleven Plates and two Appendices on sundry Items, London, 1909; Beitrage zur christlich-arabischen Literaturgeschichte, Leipsic, 1909; M. van Berchem, Arabische Inschriften, ib. 1909; idem, Materiaux pour un Corpus inscriptionum Arabicarum, Paris, 1910; J. P. Alone, Short Manual (with Vocabulary) of the Amharic Language, London, 1910; E. H. Armbruster, Initia Amharica. An Introduction to spoken Amharic, ib. 1910; H. Bauer, Die Tempora im Semitischen, Leipsic, 1910; C. Bezold, V erbalsuffix formen als Alter skriterien babylonisch-assyrischer Inschriften, Heidelberg, 1910; Fabre d'Olivet, La Langue hebraique restitute, et le veritable sense des mots hebreux retabli et prouve, Paris, 1910; J. B. Chabot, Les Langues et les litteratures arameennes, ib. 1910.
SEMLER, sem'ler or zem'ler, JOHANN SALOMO: Pioneer in Biblical criticism; b. at Saalfeld (66 m. s.w. of Leipsic) Dec. 18, 1725; d. at Halle Mar. 4, 1791. His father was archdeacon at Saalfeld, and introduced the son to the circles of Pietism (q.v.) in early youth. But young Semler, already a wide reader and possessed of a phenomenal memory, soon felt a profound disinclination toward all manner of Pietism, only by degrees, however, becoming conscious of his fundamental objection to this movement. At the University of Halle, which he visited in 1743, he was especially drawn toward Siegmund Jakob Baumgarten (q.v.), whose erudition appealed to him, and there took his master's degree in 1750. In the same year he became an unsalaried professor in the gymnasium at Coburg, where he gave instruction in the elements of Arabic, and was also editor of the Coburg Staats- und Gelehrtenzcitung. The year 1751 brought him the call of a professorship in history and Latin poetry at Altdorf. But in 1752, at the instance of Baumgarten, he was called to Halle as professor of theology, where there opened up for him a field of labor suitable to his talents. After Baumgarten's death (1757), he grew more free and spontaneous, and a few years later he was one of the most celebrated theologians of Germany.
Semler's critical investigation was directed first of all to the Scriptures. What he undertook was unheard of in German theology, yet there was no doubt of his right to make Scripture the object of scientific research. His Biblical investigations