THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
In about 200 cities in the United States there are charity organizations or similar private societies, the fundamental principles of which are the relief of the poor in their homes, registration of cases, cooperation with other charitable societies, careful investigation of applications for relief, or other aid. In some cities, notably New York, no public outdoor relief is given by the city; the private charitable societies alone caring for the poor in their homes. In most cities the charitable organizations and the public poor-officials work more or less in harmony in the administration of poorrelief. In general, institutions for special classes of the dependent and physically or mentally defective are under state or other governmental management. Almost every state has a public supervisory body, generally appointed by the governor to inspect and advise, and, in some states, to administer state charitable institutions. Generalizing, it may be said that poor-relief in the nineteenth century saw three general stages of development. The first, the development of institutions for the care of the various classes of the poor; secondly, the development of the system of the care of the poor in their homes in which the relief of the individual family was the goal. The third stage developed from about 1895, and is marked by increasing efforts to prevent pauperism.
The doctrine of prevention has become practically a gospel in charitable work. The most prominent movements to-day in preventive charity are tenement-house reform, warfare against tuberculosis, against child labor, the movement for parks and playgrounds, the movement for the reduction of congestion of population, for prison reform, for better health, and many other like movements. The problem of poor-relief in the United States is becoming a national problem of the reduction of poverty. The public press, periodicals, magazines, etc., are laying special emphasis upon charitable and correctional problems. Charity workers are emphasizing the prominence of heredity and environment as causes of poverty, and take the standpoint that with the reduction or removal of preventable conditions, due to heredity and environment, poverty will be reduced. O. F. Lewis.
Bibliography: On the history the standard work is G. Uhlhorn, Die christliche Liebesthatigkeit, 3 vols., Stuttgart, 1882-90, Eng. transl. of vol. i., Christian Charity in the Ancient Church, New York, 1883. Consult further on the history: E. L. Chastel, Etudes historiques sur Vinfluence de la charite durant les premiers siecles, Paris, 1853; A. Emminghaus, Das Armenu esen und die Armtngesetzgebung der europainchen Staaten, Berlin, 1870; A. Thijm, De Gestichten van Liefdadigheid in Belgie van Karel d. Gr. tot aan de xvi. eeuw, in Memoirs couronnes of the Royal Academy, vol. xlv., Brussels, 1*83; idem, Les Hospitaux en Belgique en moyen-nge, Lowen, 1883; B. Riggenbach, Das Armenwesen der Reformation, Basel, 1883; G. Ratzinger, Geschichte der kirchlichen Arm.enpfl.ege, Freiburg, 1884; C. J. R. Turner, Hist, of Vagrants and Vagrancy, London, 1887; D. Tourbie, Danishes Armenrecht, Berlin, 1888; F. H. Wines, Report on the Defective, Dependent, and Delinquent Classes, U. S. census, Washington, 1888; H. G. Willink, Dutch Home Labour Colonies, London, 1889; R. P Lamond, The Scottish Poor Laws, Glasgow, 1892; L. A. Rubbrecht, Remedes contre le pauperisme, Brussels, 1892; B. H. Dahlberg, Bidrag tell Svenska Fattiglagstiftningens Historia, I'psala, 1893; E. Chevallier, La Loides pauvres et la socu'te anglaise, Paris, 1895; J. Cummings, Poor-Laws of Massachusetts and New York, Baltimore, 1895; W. G.
Lumley, Union Assessment Acts and the Poor Rate Act, London, 1895; A. Loth, La Charite catholique en France avant le revolution. Tours, 1896; Sir G. Nicholls, A Hist, of the English Poor Law, 2 vols., London, 1898; E. Mischler, Die Armenpflege und Wohlthatigkeit in Oesterreich, Vienna, 1899; E. M. Leonard, Early Hist, of Eng. lish Poor Relief, Cambridge, 1900; O. B. P. G. de Cleron, Assistance pvblique et bienfaisance privee, Paris, 1901; W. H. Diemsday, Hodden's Overseers' Handbook, London, 1901; J. B. Little, The Poor Law Statutes, 3 vols., London, 1901; P. F. Aschrott, The English Poor Law System, London, 1902; H. S. Brown, American Philanthropy in the 19th Century, 2 vols., New York, 1902; A. Hoffmann and H. Simon, Wohlfahrtspflege in Rheinland und Westfalen, Diisseldorf, 1902; L. Lallemand, Hist, de la charite, 4 vols., Paris, 1902-10; J. J. Esser, De pauperum cura apud Romanos, Campis (?), 1902; C. A. Ellwood, Public Relief and Private Charity in England, Columbia, Mo., 1903 ; B. Kuske, Das Schuldenwesen der deutschen Stadte im Miltelalter, Tubingen, 1904; E. Marescont du Thilleul, V Assistance publique a Paris, 2 vols., Paris, 1904; E. Sellers, The Danish Poor Relief System, London, 1904; K. Singer, Sociale Fiirsorge, Munich, 1904; B. K. Gray, Hist, of English Philanthropy, London, 1905 (important); E. W. Capen, Historical Development of the Poor Law of Connecticut, New York, 1905; J. E. Graham, The Law Relating to the Poor, Edinburgh, 1905 (deals with Scotland); E. von M tiller, Die Elendenbruderschaften. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Fremdenfiirsorge im Miltelalter, Leipsic, 1906; F. Appleton, Church Philanthropy in New York, New York, 1907; M. Fluegel, The Humanity, Benevolence and Charity Legislation of the Pentateuch and the Talmud; in Parallel with the Laws of Hammurabi, the Doctrine of Egypt, the Roman Twelve Tables, and modern Codes, Baltimore, 1908; M. Godbey, The Bible and the Problem of Poverty, New York, 1908; E. C. Rayner, Story of the Christian Community, 1686-1909. A notable Record of Christian Labour in London Workhouses and Lodging Houses, London, 1909; J. J. Walsh, The Thirteenth, Greatest of Centuries, New York, 1909; R. M. Berry, Germany of the Germans, ib. 1910 (deals with poor laws); Schaff, Christian Church, vol. v., part 2, § 79; the Proceedings of the national, state, and municipal Conferences on Charities and Corrections and the Annual Reports of the boards of charities, etc., of the various states and cities.
On the theory and practise in various countries consult: A. Baron, Le Pauperisme, Paris, 1882; J. Piatt, Poverty, London, 1884; C. V Bohmert, Das Armenwesen in 77 deutschen Stadten, 3 parts, Dresden, 1880-88; W. Booth, In Darkest England and the Way out, London, 1890; E. G. Balch, Public Assistance of the Poor in France, London, 1893; H. G. Borgesius, Het Vraagstuk der Armerzorging, Amsterdam, 1895; J. A. Hobson, The Problem of the Unemployed, London, 1896; B. Gewin, Arbeidsbeurzen, Utrecht, 1898; W. C. and R. C. Glen, General Orders of the Poor Law Commissioners and the Local Government Board Relating to the Poor Law, London, 1898; E. T. Devine, Practice of Charity, New York, 1901; idem, Essentials of a Relief Policy, New York, 1903; idem, Principles of Relief, ib. 1904; idem, Misery and its Causes, ib. 1909; C. R. Henderson, Introduction to the Study of the Dependent and Defective Classes and of their Treatment, 2d ed., Boston, 1901; idem, Modern Methods of Charity: the Systems of Relief . in the principal Countries hav-
ing modern Methods, New York, 1904; T. Mackay, Public Relief of the Poor, London, 1901; H. Albrecht, Handbuch der sozialen Wohlfahrtspflege in Deutschland, 2 parts, Berlin, 1902; Beitriige zur Armenstatistik, Jena, 1902; P. C. J. A. Bocles, A rmengoederen en Armenbesturen in Friesland, Leeuwarden, 1902; T. B. Chilcott, Law Relating to the Administration of Charities, London, 1902; J. A. Rii'', The Battle with the Slum, New York, 1902; J. Sutter, Britain's Next Campaign, London, 1903; R. Hunter, Poverty, New York, 1904; M. Higgs, How to Deal with the Unemployed, London, 1904; J. Ladoff, American Pauperism and the Abolition of Poverty, Chicago, 1904; O. S. Loch, Methods of Social Advance, London, 1904; E. U. Pasini, La Difesa del Povero, Perugia, 1904; C. F. Rogers, Charitable Relief, London, 1904; P. Alden, The Unemployed, London, 1905; Y. E. de Froment, V Assistance legale et la lutte contre le pauperisme en Anglcterre, Paris, 1905; A. Niceforo, Les Classes pauvres, Paris, 1905; W. Reason, Our Industrial. Outcasts, London, l(.)0.r>, A. G. Warner, American Charities, revised ed., Boston, 1908; H. M