THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
sist of communications of varied character. She first became a medium in 1885, and soon after came under the observation of Professor William James of Harvard and of Dr. Richard Hodgson, secretary of the American branch of the Society for Psychical Research. The various sets of phenomena, an outline merely of which is given above, aroused scientific interest, and have been under consideration by various learned or scientific bodies. One of the year 1SS4 from the University of Pennsylvania achieved little because of inability to come to an understanding with the mediums. In 1882 the Society for Psychical Research was formed in England for the accumulation and investigation of data upon this and related subjects. Parts of the results of the work of this organization are presented and reviewed by F. W. H. Myers in his Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death (London, 1903), while the whole range of alleged spiritistic phenomena is reviewed by F. Podmore in Modern Spiritualism (London, 1902). The general trend of opinion among scientists, when considering phenomena of the sort under consideration, from which the element or possibility of fraud has been eliminated, is that the manifestations are not those of spirits, but are to be referred to powers of the human mind which are beginning to be the objects of systematic study, such as the " subliminal consciousness " and various other phenomena, many of these coming in the domain of abnormal psychology. One of the characteristics of most of the " communications," the inherent unimportance, has thus received explanation. The way is probably being prepared for a scientific explanation of other kinds of manifestation, which have been supposed to show the interference of spirits, by profounder and patient study of the lower regions of psychology. The exposure of those " mediums " who resorted to fraud and the formulation of tests by which to assure the reality of the manifestations presented have reduced the field to be covered, while they have also greatly diminished the number of adherents of spiritualism. The belief in the actuality of communication between discarnated spirits and the living drew together in various places those of like mind, and led in the course of time to the formation of bodies
corresponding to congregations and
Organized churches in other Christian denomina-
Form. tions, and utimately to the formation
of a national organization, through which a statement of belief and platform of practises have been issued. Thus determined, the belief of Spiritualists involves the actuality of communications, as stated above; they reject the doctrine of the Trinity and of the deity of Christ, and also that of the supreme authority of the Scriptures; they hold to the existence of an infinite intelligence expressed by the physical and spiritual phenomena of nature, a correct understanding of which and a following of which in life constitute the true religion; the continued conscious existence of the spirit after death is a postulate, and with this goes belief in progress as the universal law of nature. All legislation respecting the observance of Sunday as a holy day is opposed by the National Spiritualists' Association, as also all attempts to unite Church and State,
sectarian instruction in the public schools, the granting of special favors to the clergy, and the appointment of paid chaplains in the public service; the organization favors equal taxation of all secular and ecclesiastical property, an educational qualification for all voters, and the elimination of sex as a criterion of availability for civil office and the suffrage. The Association has offices in Washington, D. O, holds annual conventions (nineteenth held in Wichita, Kan., 1911), maintains a free library at Washington, employs salaried missionaries, an editor at large, arranges for lectures and campmeetings, carries on correspondence with organizations in other lands, and has at Whitewater, Wis. the Morris Pratt Institute with a two-years' course of instruction. It reports twenty-two state associations, 437 active local societies with 216 others meeting irregularly, 32 camp-meeting associations, 120 churches and temples with a valuation of S2,- 000,000; 75,000 avowed adherents with a constituency of nearly 2,000,000; 370 ordained ministers, and 1,500 public mediums. W. H. Larhabee. Bibliography: J. W. Edmonds and G. T. Dexter, Spiritualism. New York, 1854-55; E. W. Capron, Modern Spiritualism; its Facts, Boston, 1855; R. Ware, Experimental Investigations of the Spirit Manifestations, New York, 1856; R. D. Owen, Footfalls on the Boundary of Another World, Philadelphia, 1859; idem, The Debatable Land between this World and the Next, New York, 1S72; TV. Howitt, The Hist, of the Supernatural in All Ages and Nations, London, 1863; A. De Morgan, From Matter to Spirit, ib. 1863; H. Tuttle, Philosophy of Spiritual Existence and of the Spirit World, 2d ed., Boston, 1864; idem, Arcana of Nature, new ed., London, 1908; W. McDonald, Spiritualism Identical with Ancient Sorcery, New Testament Demonology and Modern Witchcraft, New York, 1866;
E. Sargent, Planchette, or the Despair of Science, Boston, 1869; H. S. Olcott, People from the Other World; wonderful Doings of the " Eddy Brothers," Hartford, n. d.; E. W. Cox, Spiritualism Answered by Science, London, 1872; M. Hull, Contrast: Evangelism and Spiritualism compared, Boston, 1874; J. M. Peebles, Seers of the Ages; ancient, medieval, and modern Spiritualism, 6th ed., Boston, 1874; idem, Spiritualism Defined and Defended, ib. 1875; F. G. Lee, The Other World, London, 1875; idem, Sights and Shadows; Examples of the Supernatural, ib. 1894; A. Mahan, Phenomena of Spiritualism scientifically Explained and Exposed, New York, 1876; W. B. Carpenter, Mesmerism, Spiritualism . . historically and scientifically Considered, London, 1877; D. D. Home, Lights and Shadows of Spiritualism, ib. 1878; T. B. Hall, Modern Spiritualism, Boston, 1883; J. W. Truesdell, Bottom Facts concerning Spiritualism, New York, 1883; J. Chester. Earthly Watchers at the Heavenly Gates; the false and true Spiritualism, Philadelphia, 1886; E. Gurney and F. TV. Meyers, Phantasms of the Living, 2 vols., London, 1887;
F. Johnson, The New Psychic Studies in their Relation to Christian Thought, New York, 1887; J. C. Street, The Hidden Way across the Threshold, Boston, 1887; Sir W. Crookes, Researches in the Phenomena of Spiritualism, London, 1891; A. R. Wallace, Miracles and Modern Spiritualism, new ed., London, 1895; J. Jastrow, Fact and Fable in Psychology, Boston, 1901 (adverse to spiritualistic claims); F. Podmore, Modern Spiritualism, 2 vols., London, 1902 (history of the movement in England and America); idem, The Newer Spiritualism, ib., 1910; E. W. Cook and F. Podmore, Spiritualism; is Communication with the Spirit World an accomplished Fact t ib, 1903 (gives both sides of the argument) ; F. W. H. Myers, Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death, ib. 1903 (important); E. T. Bennett, Physical Phenomena popularly Classed under the Head of Spiritualism, ib. 1906; J. H. Hyslop, Borderland of Psychical Research, Boston, 1906; idem, Enigmas of Psychical Research, ib. 1906; JG- Raupert, Modern Spiritism, London, 1904 (critical examination of the alleged phenomena); idem, The Dangers of Spiritualism, ib. 1906; D. P Abbott, Behind the Scene' with Mediums, Chicago, 1907; C. Flammarion, Mysterious