THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
essentially the traditional positions (cf. J. Orr, The Christian View of God and the World, New York, 1893; H. C. Sheldon, System of Christian Doctrine, ib. 1903; J. A. Beet, A Manual of Theology, London, 1906; M. S. Terry, Biblical Dogmatics, New York, 1907; A. H. Strong, Systematic Theology, Philadelphia, 1907-08). On the other hand, several tendencies have appeared which propose modifications in the traditional modes of conceiving the realities of the Christian faith. (1) A Christocentric basis for theology has been advocated from two points of view, either constituting Christ as the heart and controlling principle of interpretation (advocated but not carried out by H. B. Smith, System of Christian Doctrine, New York, 1890, and by L. F. Stearns, Present Day Theology, ib. 1893), or regarding the consciousness of Christ as the norm of theological construction (A. M. Fairbairn, The Place of Christ in Modern Theology, New York, 1893; W N. Clarke, An Outline of Christian Theology, ib. 1898; idem, The Use of the Scriptures in Theology, ib. 1905). (2) A reconstruction of theology has been indicated which rises out of the Ritschlian background and has for its immediate aim a fresh evaluation of faith, especially as affected from the historical and social side (H. C. King, Reconstruction in Theology, New York, 1901; idem, Theology and the Social Consciousness, ib. 1902). (3) Among the attempts to relate theology to a vital religious experience as interpreted through its history both in the Scriptures and the Church may be mentioned G. B. Stevens, The Christian Doctrine of Salvation (New York, 1905); O. F. Curtis, The Christian Faith, Personally Given in a System of Doctrine (ib. 1905); C. A. Beckwith, Realities of Christian Theology (Boston, 1906); W A. Brown, Christian Theology in Outline (New York, 1906). This method finds in experience its immediate source of theology and in history the form which that experience has taken in its rational development, and accordingly devotes particular attention to these two aspects of life. (4) In the doctrine of the immanence of God lies the basis for several discussions in theology, as, e.g., by R. J. Campbell, The New Theology (London, 1907), and by Sir Oliver Lodge, The Substance of Faith Allied with Science (ib. 1907). The point of view is that of an essentially pantheistic monism, characterized by two significant bearings — a tendency to eliminate the fact of sin, and a firm emphasis on the social aspect of Christianity. Endeavors to adjust the claims of monism to the ethical demands of consciousness have been made by J. Caird, An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion (London, 1880), by J. Royce, The World and the Individual (vol. ii., Boston, 1901), and by B. P. Bowne, Theism (ib. 1902), and The Immanence of God (London, 1905; cf. God, IV.). (5) Evolution has been accepted by most recent theologians as on the whole the method of God in his cosmic action. Some have so described the redemptive purpose as to isolate this from the uniform activity of God in the creation (cf. C. Hodge, ut sup.); others, as W N. Clarke and A. H. Strong, have admitted evolution but with reservations; while others have adopted this as the constant mode of God's working, not only in creation and provi-
dence, but also in redemption, and have made it the key to their entire presentation (L. Abbott, The Theology of an Evolutionist, Boston, 1897; E. Griffith Jones, Ascent through Christ, London, 1901). (6) Psychology occupies a far more definite and influential place in theology than at any previous period. While Augustine and Edwards had unequaled insight into the nature and workings of the religious consciousness and expressed themselves with a subtilty and force never surpassed, yet as theology has busied itself with the human side of divine grace, it has been compelled to make a greater use of psychology in its discussions of man and sin, of the person and work of Christ, of conversion and sanctification, of future punishment, and not least of all in its determination of the character of God (for a single aspect of this subject, see Conversion, supplement; and in addition to the works there indicated, cf. G. B. Cutten, The Psychological Phenomena of Christianity, New York, 1908). (7) The so-called " positive theology " has for its key-note the " primacy of the given." There is an objective content of revelation. Christ was in relation to God what he himself and his first disciples thought him to be. In him, in his cross God redeemed the world. This action was not merely a saving influence but a saving deed; it changed God's relation to men objectively and once for all. This fact is creative of Christian experience. It is not, however, mediated by the Bible as authoritative, nor is it assured by historical criticism. A present-day experience which involves the supernatural offers a firm basis for the existence of the supernatural in the New-Testament times and in the New Testament itself. With reference to this objective gospel faith is not something which the Christian shares with Christ in imitation of him, but is directed to him as the one in whom the objective revelation centered and was declared (cf. D. S. Cairns, Christianity in the Modern World, New York, 1906; P. T. Forsyth, Positive Preaching and the Modern Mind, ib. 1907; S. Mathews, The Church and the Changing Order, ib. 1907; R. Seeberg, The Fundamental Truths of the Christian Religion, London, 1908). (8) The " critical " theology seeks the revelation of God in the orderly processes of the natural world and in the rational consciousness. The supernatural is the natural regarded from its divine causative ground; the natural is the regular method of God's activity. Hence no conflict arises between the scientific and the religious view of the world. The traditional apologetic in defense of miracles is thus unnecessary; the true apologetic is the actual adaptedness of Christianity to the social needs of men. Redemption emptied of its miraculous content is an ethical emancipation. The power of the cross lies in its capacity to quicken in the souls of men a spirit of sacrifice and service like that of Jesus (cf. G. B. Foster, The Finality of the Christian Religion, Chicago, 1906).
In the foregoing description no attempt is made at an exhaustive account of any one of the various treatises referred to. In all of these the lines of tendency cross and recross and each shares to some degree in all the features of the modern spirit. The purpose is to indicate only the dominant notes in the respective presentations- The aim of theology