RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Tradition Trajan
Polemik, pp. 64-94, 3d ed., Leipsic, 1871; J. Bach, Dogmengeschichte des Mittelalters, 2 parts, Vienna, 1873—75 (Roman Catholic) ; G. Ullmann, Reformers before the Reformation, passim, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1874-77; H. Reuter, Geschichte der religiosen Aufklarung im Mittelalter, 2 vols., Berlin, 1875-77; J. B. Heinrich, Dogmatische Theologie, vol. ii., Mainz, 1876 (Roman Catholic); P. Tschackert, Evangelische Polemik gegen die romische Kirche, pp. 91 sqq., Gotha, 1885; S. J. Hunter, Outlines of Dogmatic Theology, §§ 77-85, 93-109, 339, 795, 3 vols., New York, 1896; F. Kropatscheck, Das Schriftprinzip der lutherischen Kirche, vol. i., Leipsic, 1904; Harnack, Dogma, passim, consult Index (well worth noting) ; KL, xi. 1933- 1971; Lichtenberger, ESR, xii. 191-199.
TRADUCIANISM. See Soul and Spirit.
TRAJAN, tre'jan, MARCUS ULPIUS: Roman emperor (98-117); b. at Italica (6 Roman m. n.w. of Seville), Spain, Sept. 18, 52; d. at Selinus on the west coast of Cilicia, Asia Minor, about Aug. 7, 117- His father was a high provincial officer of Latin origin; the son adopted his father's martial career, and was long posted at various points occupied by the Roman army both east and west. In the year 91 he obtained the consulate, but first came significantly into public notice in 97, when Nerva put him in command of Upper Germany, and adopted him in the same year. Trajan came to the throne Jan. 27, 98. He proved himself equal to the imminent military dangers that menaced the realm, and directed his energy to the task of girdling the Roman Empire with secure defenses. He was distinguished by sober judgment and maturely weighed action. While he veiled the strong sense of his imperial sovereignty under the semblance of freedom, his firmness and strength of will left ample room for personal affability and the practical exercise of contemporary modes of benevolence. The latter trait found particular expression in comprehensive provision for orphan children (cf. G. Uhlhorn, Die christliche Liebestatigkeit in der alten Kirche, i. 16 sqq., Stuttgart, 1882; Eng. transl., Christian Charity in the Early Church, p. 18, New York, 1883). His education was of average compass, and he highly cherished intercourse with poets and scholars. The weal of the realm in equity and good order was the unselfish goal of his policy. Under him the classic Roman Empire stands forth, for the last time, in the entire fulness of its political magnitude.
Trajan's religious views appear in thorough harmony with conventional popular piety. But formal piety was restricted within the general bounds of his personal and imperial ideals; hence not his religion but his political judgment was the root of that imperial decision which immediately connects his name with the Christian Church.
After Trajan had brought the province of Bithynia Pontus under control of the imperial government, he sent thither to restore order the Younger Pliny, a man stirred, like his chief, by the philanthropic ideas of that age. In the progress of a journey through the province, and dating down to the beginning of the year 113, he wrote sixty letters to Trajan, wherein he communicated his observations, and requested advice on all possible questions that crossed his path. These letters, together with Trajan's answers, are extant in chronological order (best edition with notes by Hardy, London, 1889). This province had a strong Jewish population. The Apos-
tle Paul once purposed to visit it, but was hindered by the Spirit (Acts xvi. 7 sqq.); Christians are included for Pontus and Bithynia among those addressed in I Pet. i. 1. Only in the eastern districts, perhaps at Amisus, was Pliny confronted with the Christian issue, and the situation is described in his famous letter no. 96. Trajan incisively adopted the policy of surveillance of corporate life as inaugurated by Julius Caesar, especially in turbulent districts, and enforced a rigorous execution of the prohibition of collegia. It was in this sense that Pliny received a strict command with regard to the province in his charge.
Pliny perceived himself face to face with a wide extension of Christianity in town and country. Both sexes and all ages and ranks were implicated in the new faith; consequently, the worship of the gods was in neglect. Pliny felt that his responsibility embraced the right maintenance of the state religion, and interfered by virtue of his office. Capital sentence was executed upon persons confessing their charge when duly brought to trial and found guilty, save that Roman citizens were to be transported to the metropolis. But the situation grew more complex, and doubts possessed Pliny concerning the expediency or the justice of acts of repression. In view of the difficulties, from which Pliny saw no exit, an appeal was made to the emperor's decision. The imperial answer recognized the fundamental correctness of the course pursued by Pliny. Trajan regarded the Christian confession as an offense worthy of capital sentence. The matter of supplying standards of procedure for treating concrete forms and instances was declined on grounds of impossibility; but secret inquisition and attention to anonymous reports were forbidden. Lastly, those who renounced their adherence to Christianity by sacrificing to the gods were to go clear. Where such allegiance was judicially proved, the death sentence was to follow.
Two points are significant in this rescript — the preconceived culpability of the nomen Christianum and the offsetting legal alleviations. Opinions long diverged in respect to the import and bearings of this decision; but Theodore Mommsen's basic study, Der Religions/revel nach romischem Recht (Historische Zeitschrift, 1890), has cleared up the subject. The entire procedure rests in the so-called coercitio or official repression, not tied down to any defined forms of trial, but administered with reference to the maintenance of public order (see Persecution of the Christians in the Roman Empire). Among eminent martyrs during Trajan's administration were Ignatius of Antioch and Simeon of Jerusalem (qq.v.).
Trajan came into conflict with the Jews, who started a furious insurrection in Egypt and Cyrene (115 a.d.), which soon spread to Cyprus. The emperor, just then detained in Mesopotamia, succeeded only after a severe campaign in mastering the situation through his field commander, Marcus Turbo (117). Victor Schultze.
Bibliography: An extensive literature, much of which is pertinent, may be found under Persecution of Christians. Consult further: H. Franeke, Zur Geschichte Trajans, Leipsic, 1840; J. Dierauer, Beitrage zu einer kritischen Geschichte Trajans, ib. 1868; F. Overbeck, Studien
Transcendentalism