THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
1897; A. Menzies, Earliest Gospel, London, 1901; W. J. Moulton, in Biblical and Semitic Studies (Yale University) , pp. 157-210, New Haven, 1901; J. deQ. Donehoo, The Apocryphal and Legendary Life of Christ, New York, 1903; O. Holtzmann, Life of Jesus, London, 1904; W. Sanday, Outlines of the Life of Christ, 2d ed., Edinburgh, 1906; G. D. Barry, The Transfiguration of our Lord, London and New York; 1911; DB, iv. 807-808; EB, iv. 4570-71; DCG, ii. 742-745; B. W. Bacon, in AJT, 1902, pp. 236- 265; and the commentaries on the passages in the Gospels. On the location consult Robinson, Researches, ii. 357-359.
TRANSMIGRATION: A phase of metempsychosis (see Comparative Religion, VI., 1, § 6) which assumes the rebirth of a soul into another body (reincorporation). Belief in transmigration
is common among primitive peoples, has had a large part in the philosophy of India, and in the West has furnished the theme for a large body of folk-lore; in Greece it was advocated by Pythagoras and was held by the Orphics; it reappeared in the Cabala (q.v.), reminiscences of it are to be discovered in early obscure Christian sects, and even in the Middle Ages it was not altogether banished from thought. But nowhere else has the conception had so large and abiding influence as in India, where it is practically the key to almost all theological systems and furnishes the reason for the fundamental hope of the Indian of nearly every faith — escape from the samsara or cycle of births.
I. Rise of the Concept. Earliest Evidences (§ 1). Early Medieval Development (12). II. Scholastic Development. Nature of the Change (§ 1). Concomitance (§2).
TRANSUBSTANTIATION.
Duration of Presence (§3).
Unity of Celestial and Sacramental Body (§4). III. Practical Results of the Dogmatization.
Sacrifice; Adoration; Reservation (§ 1).
I. Rise of the Concept: The doctrine of transubstantiation (namely, that in the Eucharist the substance in the elements of bread and wine is changed into the real substance of the body and blood of Christ, though retaining the accidents of the elements) was the result of four centuries of development, (fit was fixed as a dogma by the fourth Lateran Council in 1215, during the pontificate of Innocent III. The creed then adopted, a revision of the Apostolic, and promulgated against all heretics, forms the first chapter of the decrees, and is sometimes called the fourth symbol. It declares as follows: "There is verily one universal Church of the faithful, outside which no one at all is saved, in which the same priest is himself the i. Earliest sacrifice, Jesus Christ, whose body and Evidences, blood are truly contained in the sacrament of the altar under the species of bread and wine, the bread being transubstantiated into the body, and the wine into blood, by divine power,**' The term itself had already long been in use among theologians, and the concept longer still. The first authentic use of the term seems to have been in the Tractatus de sacramento altaris, xiii., xiv. (MPL, clxxii. 1291, 1293), a treatise assigned by Jean Mabillon to the first Stephen of Autun (d. 1139 or 1140), the former of the two bishops of Autun known as Peter in the twelfth century. The term, further employed by various theologians during the twelfth century, seems to have been freely current previous to the council of 1215. Innocent himself frequently used it as a current term in his De sacramenti altaris mysterio; and a citation from Alanus of Lille (MPL, ccx. 359) shows that it played a part specially in the controversy with the Cathari or Albigenses (see New Manicheans, II.), against whom the first chapter of the decree of the council was aimed. William of Auxerre (d. c. 1230) deals in his Summa with the special title De transsubstantiatione, followed by such scholars as William of Paris (or of Auvergne; d. 1249), Alexander of Hales, and Albert the Great. As to the concept it does not
Priestly Function; Communion in One Kind (§ 2).
IV. Doctrine in the Greek Church.
V. Roman Catholic Arguments in Defense of the Doctrine.
Exegetical (§ 1). Historical (§2). VI. Opposition to the Doctrine.
come to expression either in the " Sentences " of Peter Lombard, who represented the simple realistic idea of the Eucharist, or other text-books of that period. Apparently the term emerged unobserved, but may have been in circulation before the twelfth century. For indications discovered in a writer, Haimo, probably of Halberstadt (d. 853), or possibly of Hirschau (abbot, from 1091), shows the idea in its nascent stage. He employs the words: " Therefore we believe that that substance, namely, i of bread and wine, that is, the nature of bread and wine, [is] substantially changed into another substance, that is, into flesh and blood "; and again: " The invisible priest changes his visible creatures into the substance of his flesh and bloody' (MPL, cxviii. 815-816). Among twelfth-centifry authors, however, Peter of Poitiers (d. 1205) alone seems to consider or justify the use of the term transsubstantio for the change here indicated. Closely following Peter Lombard, he considers the process effected by consecration under the general category of " change " (conversio). The Lombard had already debated whether the " change " was formal or substantial, or of some other species. Totally denying the first, he, however, went no further as to the second than to cite the approval of previously named authorities and to reply to " others " who objected against it. He does not protest against the accepted statement that through the priest bread is made into flesh, but how this takes place is to him a mystery which is more wholesome to believe than to investigate. He classifies known views as follows: (1) not the substance of bread becomes the body, except as bread is made out of flour, when it may be said that flour is made, not is, bread; (2) what was bread and wine was afterward body and blood, so that the bread is no longer substance, and hence no longer bread; (3) " after consecration there is the substance of body and blood under those accidents under which there was formerly the substance of bread and wine "; (4) the substance of bread and wine remains, but in the same place, after