THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
a
bol may represent as many as seventeen sounds. This at once shows the enormous difficulty and possible ambiguity of the script, paralleled only, perhaps, by the Babylonian-Assyrian cuneiform writing in its several stages. Yet the importance of the Pahlavi for knowledge of the religion can not be overestimated. The earliest manuscripts, apart from a few papyrus fragments of the eighth(?) century, are four which date from the fourteenth century, and contain the Yasna and the Vendidad, with the corresponding Zend or commentary.
The principal Pahlavi texts are: (1) the Bundahish (Bundahishn) “ original creation,” a fragmentary work dealing with cosmogony, mythology, and legend, therefore sometimes compared with the
Genesis of the Hebrew Scriptures. It
9. Pahlavi describes what is evidently assumed Literature. in the Avesta, the original condition of the universe, with the omniscient good
spirit, Ahura Mazda (Ormuzd) dwelling in light, and the evil spirit, Angra Mainyu (Ahriman), dwelling in darkness and with limited knowledge. The course of creation is described, and there is then given a legendary or mythical geography and history of the earth with all its affairs, coming down to the legendary history of Persia and continuing till the Mohammedan conquest, including genealogies of kings, of Zoroaster, and of other priests, as also the Zoroastrian philosophy of creation. The conclusion of Zend scholars is that the book is an extract from or an epitome of one of the twenty-one Nasks. Its date is subsequent to the Mohammedan conquest in 651, more closely, about 850. There exists a paraphrase in the Gujarati language (edited and published, Mumbai, 1877). (2) The Dinkart, “ acts of Religion,” is a collection dealing with the history, customs, doctrines, literature, legends, and myths of the religion. Its compilation was begun near the beginning of the ninth century, and was finished before the end of the same, but by other hands. Its sources were the Pahlavi translations of the Nasks, not the originals. Six books have been preserved, and these are of great importance. (3) Dadistan-i Dinik, “ religious decisions,” written shortly before 881 by Manuskihar, probably a supreme high-priest of the religion. It is in form a sort of catechism, consisting of ninety-two questions on religion addressed to the author and the answers thereto. Usually connected with this writing are three epistles by the author, inspired partly by the desire to combat certain heretical ritual tendencies in modes of purification. The questions and answers concern matters religious, historical, philosophical, and practical. They bring up the question of the existence of evil, the creation of man, good works and evil and their rewards and punishments and the fate of the soul, the contests between good spirits and evil, and also matters which would be likely to arise in the ordinary experience of the people. The book is therefore a sort of guide to Zoroastrian life, covering thought, word, and deed. Its value is great as showing what an authority in his own day declared to be the duty of the faithful. So far as essential doctrine is concerned, there seems little change as compared with the prescriptions of the Avesta. The ultimate monotheistic issue is as clear
as the dualistic origins. (4) The Dina-i Mainog-i Khirad, “‘ opinions of the spirit of wisdom,” consists of an introduction followed by a series of questions assumed to be asked by an anonymous magus or wise man and answered by the spirit of wisdom. The author seems to have been a devoted lay Zoroastrian, whose purpose was to summarize the essentials of belief and practise. His interest was not ritualistic, and the work is therefore in some sense distinctive. The Wate is uncertain, but some time soon after the Arab conquest is possible (c. 650). (5) The Shikand-Gumanik Vijar, ‘‘ doubt-dispelling explanation,” is controversial, philosophic, and apologetic, and is particularly concerned with the proof that evil has an independent origin At some length is shown the fundamental agreement with Zoroastrianism in this particular of other religions, such as Mohammedanism, Manicheism, and Christianity, even while they assert a unitary creation. The doctrine of the Trinity is assailed. The author acknowledges his indebtedness to earlier writings, and is diplomatic and courteous in his references to other faiths, particularly to Mohammedanism. The date is to be placed near the end of the ninth century. (6) The Shayast la-Shayast, “thou shalt, thou shalt not,” prescribes what may and what may not be done by the true believer, and deals with trespasses, impurities, and ceremonies. It is composite, in two parts which are somewhat repetitious, by at least two authors, who discuss means against various sources of ceremonial pollution, correct methods of dress, good works, conduct toward the sun and fire, and minutiz of correct procedure in a large variety of circumstances. Its age must be high, as it quotes no less than twelve of the Nasks, and it may have been compiled in the seventh century from much older material. Its value is great as presenting the great body of ceremonial customs and prescriptions current in Persia twelve centuries ago. It has been likened to the Leviticus of the Hebrew Bible. (7) The Arta-i Viraf Namak and the Bahman Yasht are eschatological, and the former is historically useful as giving the Persian view of the devastation caused by the conquest of Alexander and of the revival of the religion under the Sassanide. Mention may be made here of some Persian literature, such as the Zartush Nama, “ book of Zoroaster,” of the thirteenth century; the Sad Dar, “100 chapters,” an epitome of Zoroastrian doctrines, in three recensions, one prose and two poetical; Rivayats, which give traditions; and Kissai-Sanjan, professing to give an account of the migration of the Zoroastrians to India; as well as the Shah Namah already named.
V. The Prophet: The name Zoroaster, by which the prophet of Iran is known in the West, comes from the common Latin form (and the Greek) Zoroastres, though other forms are known in Greek, the most observable being Zathraustes, which approximates closely to the Avestanform. Thecommon Pahlavi form is Zaratusht, to which the modern Persian form is very close (see extracts from catechism at the close of this article). The Avestan names are Zarathushtra, Zarathushtra Spitama, Spitama Zarathushtra, or Spitama, The last is a family name
I. The Name.